Anokhin Pyotr Kuzmich is a famous Soviet physiologist. One of his main achievements is the creation of the theory of functional systems. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in 1972 he became a laureate of the Lenin Prize. His contribution to science is still being researched and evaluated by his followers.

Biography of a scientist

Anokhin Petr Kuzmich was born in Tsaritsyn, now it is Volgograd. He was born in 1898. He grew up in a working-class family, at the age of 15 he graduated from a higher primary school, already then showing a craving for science and knowledge.

But the family of Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin was not rich, so instead of continuing his planned education, he was forced to go to work as a teenager. railway clerk. Soon he passed the exams for a more prestigious and highly paid position - a postal and telegraph official.

Despite the fact that he had to work hard, the hero of our article decided not to abandon his studies. He externally passed the exams immediately for six classes of a real school, enrolling in a land surveying and agronomic school in Novocherkassk.

Anokhin Pyotr Kuzmich, like most people from the working class, supported the revolution. The future academician took part in the Civil War, and when Soviet power was established in the country, he became a press commissar, supervised the publication of the Krasny Don newspaper in Novocherkassk as editor-in-chief.

A great influence on the fate of Peter Kuzmich, whose biography is given in this article, was a meeting with Lunacharsky. The first people's commissar of education at that time traveled on an agitation train to the troops of the Southern Front. Anokhin Petr Kuzmich and Lunacharsky discussed the prospects for studying the brain, the hero of our article sought to understand the material mechanisms that move the human soul.

Already in 1921, he received an official invitation from Petrograd to enter the Institute of Medical Knowledge in Leningrad, at that time he was led by the legendary scientist Bekhterev. Anokhin stood out already in his first year, having defended his work on the influence of minor and major sounds on certain parts of the cerebral cortex.

Working with Pavlov

In 1922, he attends a series of lectures by Academician Pavlov, which he reads at the Military Medical Academy, decides to enter his laboratory.

In parallel, he continues his studies, and after that he works at the institute. In 1926, he received a position as a senior assistant at the Department of Physiology at the Zootechnical Institute of the Northern Capital, and two years later became an assistant professor.

In Pavlov's laboratory, he studies the circulation of the brain, as well as the effect that acetylcholine has on the functions of the salivary gland, in particular, on the secretory and vascular.

In 1930, Pavlov recommended Anokhin for the position of head of the department of physiology at the Medical University of Nizhny Novgorod. In the same year, the faculty separated from the university, forming a separate medical institute. Anokhin continues to work at the new university, and at the same time teaches at the Faculty of Biology of the University of Nizhny Novgorod.

Learning reflexes

It was during this period that the scientist Pyotr Anokhin began to conduct bold research. He basically creates new method studying conditioned reflexes. He proposed an original method, which allowed him to conclude that in the central nervous system formed special drug, in which there are parameters of the so-called "prepared excitation". Over time, it was called the acceptor of the result of the action.

In 1935, the physiologist Petr Kuzmich Anokhin introduced the concept of sanctioning afferentation into scientific use. Then approximately gives the first definition of a functional system. This is the important contribution to the science of Anokhin Pyotr Kuzmich.

Later, while compiling his own autobiography, the hero of our article noted that during this period of his professional career, when he had already risen to the rank of professor, he had a concept that seriously influenced many of his research interests. He was one of the first in physiology who succeeded in formulating the theory of the functional system. Thus, Anokhin clearly demonstrated that the most effective and productive for solving physiological problems is precisely a systematic approach.

Moving to Moscow

The next stage in his career was moving to Moscow with some of his employees, which took place in 1935. Anokhin began working at the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine. Here he was instructed to form his own department of neurophysiology, as well as to conduct a number of important studies that were carried out jointly with the department of micromorphology under the leadership of Lavrentiev, as well as the neurological clinic of Krol.

In 1938, Nikolai Burdenko invited Anokhin to head the psycho-neurological sector on the basis of the Central Neurosurgical Institute, in which the hero of our article begins to develop another theory. This time he studies the nerve scar. To the same period belong his fundamental research dedicated to the novocaine blockade, which he conducted together with the specialists of the Vishnevsky clinic.

The Great Patriotic War

When the war began, Anokhin, together with the Institute of Experimental Medicine, was urgently evacuated to Tomsk. In this Siberian city, he headed the department of neurosurgery, dealt with issues of the peripheral nervous system.

He managed to systematize the results of his pre-war theoretical research, as well as an important and unique neurosurgical experience. He combined all these works into a monograph entitled "Nerve Plastics in Military Trauma of the Peripheral Nervous System", which was published in 1944. He also continued the study of the theory of the nerve scar, originally formulated earlier.

At the same time, Anokhin returned to Moscow already in 1942, having received an appointment as head of the physiological laboratory. His new place of work was the Institute of Neurosurgery. Here he continues to personally operate and consult other doctors, and, together with Burdenko, conducts research on the surgical treatment of military injuries of the nervous system, unique for that time.

The result of this activity was an article devoted to the peculiarities of nerves and their surgical treatment, which Anokhin wrote together with Burdenko. Then he was elected a professor at the Department of Physiology of Moscow University.

Institute of Physiology

An important contribution of Petr Anokhin to the development of science was his work in the Department of Physiology of the Nervous System, which was formed in 1944 on the basis of the newly established Institute of Physiology. The Academy of Medical Sciences played a key role in this. At the same time, he served as the director of the institute, and earlier as a deputy, who oversaw scientific work.

After the end of the war, many of Anokhin's works and studies were criticized. In 1950, a well-known resonant session took place, at which the problems of the physiological doctrine that Pavlov promoted were discussed. Many scientists were sharply criticized at it, including Beritashvili, Orbeli, Speransky and many others. In particular, many were dissatisfied with the theory of functional systems, the author of which was Anokhin.

For example, at this session, Professor Asratyan noted that it is understandable when Pavlov is criticized by Soviet researchers who have never worked with him and are not familiar with the very spirit of science. But the scientific community was especially indignant at the fact that Pavlov's achievements were criticized by one of his most famous students, Anokhin. The hero of our article was accused of pseudoscientific and idealistic views and theories, which, in their opinion, were formed under the influence of the bourgeois West.

Link to Ryazan

In 1913 he graduated from the higher elementary school. To help his family, he entered the railroad as a clerk, and then passed the exams for the position of a postal and telegraph official. In the same period, he passed the exams externally for six classes of a real school and in the fall of 1915 he entered the Novocherkassk Surveying and Agronomic School.

Participated in the Civil War.

In the first years of Soviet power - the commissar for the press and Chief Editor newspaper "Red Don" in Novocherkassk. A chance meeting with A.V. Lunacharsky, who was traveling with the propaganda train during this period, the troops of the Southern Front, and a conversation about the desire to study the brain in order to “understand the material mechanisms of the human soul” becomes a landmark in the fate of Anokhin.

By the autumn of 1921, he received a call to Petrograd and was sent to study at the State Institute of Medical Knowledge (GIMZ), led by V. M. Bekhterev. Already in the 1st year, under the guidance of V. M. Bekhterev, he carried out his first scientific work “The influence of major and minor vibrations of sounds on excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex”.

After listening to a series of lectures by IP Pavlov at the Military Medical Academy, he goes to work in his laboratory (1922).

Upon graduation in 1926, the GIMZ was elected to the position of senior assistant at the Department of Physiology of the Leningrad Zootechnical Institute (since 1928 - associate professor). Continuing to work in the laboratory of IP Pavlov, the scientist performed a number of studies at the department of the institute on the study of the blood circulation of the brain and the effect of acetylcholine on the vascular and secretory functions of the salivary gland.

In 1930, P. K. Anokhin, recommended for the competition by I. P. Pavlov, was elected professor of the Department of Physiology of the Medical Faculty of the University of Nizhny Novgorod. After the separation of the faculty from the university and the formation of a medical institute on its basis, he simultaneously heads the department of physiology Faculty of Biology Nizhny Novgorod University.

Best of the day

During this period, he proposed fundamentally new methods for studying conditioned reflexes: the secretory-motor method, as well as an original method with a sudden substitution of unconditioned reinforcement, which allowed P. K. Anokhin to conclude that a special apparatus was formed in the central nervous system, which contains the parameters of future reinforcement (“prepared excitement”). Later, this apparatus was called the "action result acceptor" (1955).

In 1935, P.K. Anokhin introduced the concept of “sanctioning afferentation” (since 1952 - “reverse afferentation”, later, in cybernetics - “ Feedback”), then in the preface to the collective monograph “Problems of the Center and Periphery in the Physiology of Nervous Activity” gives the first definition of a functional system. “During this period of my life,” he later wrote in his autobiography, “when I was already a professor, and a concept was born that determined my research interests for life ... I managed to formulate the theory of a functional system, showing that the systems approach is the most progressive for solving physiological problems.

With the transfer in 1935 with part of the staff to Moscow, the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine (VIEM) organizes a department of neurophysiology here, a number of studies of which were carried out jointly with the department of micromorphology, led by B. I. Lavrentiev, and the clinic of neurology M. B. Krol.

Since 1938, at the invitation of N. N. Burdenko, he has simultaneously been in charge of the psycho-neurological sector of the Central Neurosurgical Institute, where he is developing the theory of the nerve scar. By the same time, his joint work with the clinic of A. V. Vishnevsky on the issues of novocaine blockade belongs.

With the beginning of the Great Patriotic War in the fall of 1941, together with VIEM, he was evacuated to Tomsk, where he was appointed head of the neurosurgical department for injuries of the peripheral nervous system. Later, the results of pre-war theoretical studies and neurosurgical experience were summarized by P. K. Anokhin in the monograph Nerve Plastic Surgery in Military Trauma of the Peripheral Nervous System (1944), and also formed the basis of his theory of the nerve scar.

In 1942 he returned to Moscow and was appointed head of the physiological laboratory at the Institute of Neurosurgery. Here, along with consultations and operations, together with N. N. Burdenko, he continues research on the surgical treatment of military trauma to the nervous system. The result of these works was their joint article "Structural features of the lateral neuromas and their surgical treatment." At the same time, he was elected professor at the Department of Physiology of Moscow University.

In 1944, on the basis of the Department of Neurophysiology and Laboratories of VIEM, the Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, established shortly before, was organized, where P.K. Anokhin was appointed head of the department of physiology of the nervous system (and at the same time in different years served as deputy director for scientific work (1946) and director of the institute).

In the autumn of 1950, at a well-known scientific session devoted to the problems of the physiological teachings of I.P. Pavlov, new scientific directions developed by the students of the great physiologist L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritashvili and A.D. Speransky and others were criticized. Acute rejection was caused by Anokhin's theory of functional systems.

Professor E. A. Asratyan: ... When certain anti-Pavlovian frivolities come forward ... Stern, Efimov, Bernstein and similar persons who do not know either the letter or the spirit of Pavlov's teaching, this is not as annoying as it is ridiculous. When such a knowledgeable and experienced physiologist as I. S. Beritashvili, who is not a student and follower of Pavlov, comes up with anti-Pavlovian concepts, this is already annoying. But when Pavlov's disciple Anokhin, under the guise of loyalty to his teacher, systematically and relentlessly strives to revise his teaching from the rotten positions of the pseudoscientific idealistic "theories" of reactionary bourgeois scientists, this is at least outrageous ...

As a result, P. K. Anokhin was removed from work at the Institute of Physiology and sent to Ryazan, where until 1952 he worked as a professor at the Department of Physiology of the Medical Institute.

From 1953 to 1955, he headed the Department of Physiology and Pathology of Higher Nervous Activity of the Central Institute for the Improvement of Doctors in Moscow.

In 1955, he was a professor at the Department of Normal Physiology at the 1st Moscow Medical Institute named after I.M. Sechenov (now the Moscow Medical Academy). At this time, he formulated the theory of sleep and wakefulness, the biological theory of emotions, proposed the original theory of hunger and satiety, completed the theory of the functional system, gave a new interpretation of the mechanism of internal inhibition, reflected in the monograph "Internal inhibition as a problem of physiology" (1958) .

P. K. Anokhin combined his scientific work with pedagogical activity, and also was the organizer and for a number of years the permanent head of the Gorky branch of the All-Union Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists, a member of the board of the All-Union Physiological Society named after I. P. Pavlov, in the late 1960s years - the creator of the international seminar on the theory of functional systems, and in 1970-1974. - Chairman of the Moscow Physiological Society, founder and first editor-in-chief of the journal "Advances in Physiological Sciences" (1970), member of the editorial boards of a number of domestic and foreign journals, editor of the "Physiology" section of the second edition of the Great Medical Encyclopedia and a member of the editorial board of its third edition.

Compositions

Problems of the center and periphery. M., 1935

Problems of nervous activity. M., 1949

General principles of compensation for impaired functions and their physiological rationale", 1955

Internal inhibition as a problem of physiology, 1958

Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex. M., 1968

Essays on the physiology of functional systems. M., 1975

Selected works. Philosophical aspects of the theory of a functional system. M., 1978

Selected works. Systemic mechanisms of higher nervous activity. M., 1979

Key questions of the theory of functional systems. M., 1980

Family

Daughter - Irina Petrovna Anokhina (May 24, 1932), professor (since 1981), full member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (since 1995).

Awards

In 1945 he was elected a full member of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, in 1966 - a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

In 1966 he was awarded the Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner of Labor "for great services in the field of health protection of the Soviet people and in the development of medical science and the medical industry."

In 1967, the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences was awarded the IP Pavlov Gold Medal for the development of a systematic approach to the study of the functional organization of the brain.

In 1972, Anokhin was awarded the Lenin Prize for the monograph "Biology and Neurophysiology of the Conditioned Reflex", published in 1968.

Memory

The name of Anokhin is the Scientific Research Institute of Normal Physiology of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, created on his initiative (now the Institute of General Physiology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, on its building (Moscow, Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street, house 6) - a memorial plaque.

In 1980, a street in Moscow (Troparyovo-Nikulino district) was named after Anokhin.

In 1974, the Academy of Medical Sciences established the Anokhin Prize for the best work in normal physiology.

Biography

Born into a working class family. In 1913 he graduated from the Higher Primary School. To help his family, he entered the railroad as a clerk, and then passed the exams for the position of a postal and telegraph official. In the same period, he passed the exams for six classes of a real school as an external student, and in the fall of 1915 he entered the Novocherkassk Surveying and Agronomic School. Participated in the Civil War. In the early years of Soviet power, he was the press commissar and editor-in-chief of the Krasny Don newspaper in Novocherkassk. A chance meeting with A. V. Lunacharsky, who traveled around the troops of the Southern Front with an agitation train during this period, and a conversation about the desire to study the brain in order to "understand the material mechanisms of the human soul" becomes a landmark in the fate of Anokhin.

By the fall of 1921, he received a call to Petrograd and a referral to study at (GIMZ), which was led by V. M. Bekhterev. Already in the 1st year, under his leadership, he conducted the first scientific work "The influence of major and minor vibrations of sounds on excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex."

As a result, P.K. Anokhin was removed from work at the Institute of Physiology and sent to Ryazan, where until 1952 he worked as a professor at the Department of Physiology of the Medical Institute.

Here is a description of K. K. Platonov (psychologist), who was personally acquainted with P. K. Anokhin:

Pyotr Kuzmich was one of those whose closeness convinced that a person's abilities, expressed to the level of talent, become his character. He was by nature and conviction a physiologist with a capital letter. His passion for science was so great that it reached the point of absurdity: he dropped out of the ranks of the party, ceasing to pay membership dues, sincerely believing that party work distracts him from science.

The academician, the founder of the famous scientific school, the founder of new branches of brain science, which became the harbinger of cybernetics - went through a path typical of a Soviet scientist.

Coming from a simple, working-class family, he became a world-famous physiologist, bringing Soviet science priority in many branches of neurophysiology, while being periodically harassed for their unwillingness to follow an officially approved, ideologically verified course in science.

"I was born in the Ravine"

He recalled that his father and mother were illiterate and signed with two crosses. This was a common occurrence among the inhabitants of the Ravine - the most proletarian part of Tsaritsyn. Here, in the family of a railway worker, the future academician Anokhin was born. His date of birth is January 27, 1898. Father - Kuzma Vladimirovich - severe and - was a native of the Don Cossacks. From his mother - Agrafena Prokofievna, originally from the Penza province - he inherited a lively and sociable character, and curiosity and the desire for knowledge became the main feature of the boy.

Before the revolution, he received a secondary education - he graduated from a real school (1914) and entered the land surveying and agronomic school in the city of Novocherkassk. Soon he denotes for himself an interest in biological science, in knowledge about a person, in particular, about his brain. He begins to take an active interest in scientific literature on this topic, to communicate with teachers of natural history, who could at least give direction to his educational aspirations.

Member of the Civil War

The proletarian origin made it natural for Anokhin to participate in the revolutionary events of 1917, and then in civil war on the side of the Bolsheviks. During the Cossack uprising in February 1918, Tsaritsyn was under threat, and the young man participated in his defense - he was appointed inspector of the headquarters for the construction of military fortifications. In 1920, he actively worked in communist propaganda - he became the press commissar in Novocherkassk and the executive editor of the main newspaper of the Don District - Krasny Don.

Here, a serious writing talent is manifested, which Academician Anokhin always distinguished later. Pyotr Kuzmich writes most of the editorials and a lot of articles for the newspaper. Their lively and figurative language attracts the attention of the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky, who made propaganda trips to the front. He wanted to meet the young author, and a meeting took place that had a fateful character for the future scientist. Anokhin told the people's commissar about his desire to study and about his interest in the structure of the human brain, which he retained during all the turbulent events in the country.

School of Bekhterev

Soon a letter arrived, which contained a request to send Anokhin to study with the famous scientist - Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, who led the State Institute of Medical Knowledge in Petrograd. In 1921, Pyotr Kuzmich went to study at this educational institution. As Anokhin later wrote, Academician Bekhterev did the main thing for him - he forever tied him to a global, universal scientific problem - to the secret of the work of the human brain, when he was involved in real research work from the first year.

However, student Anokhin soon realizes that he is not attracted to psychiatry - the main direction scientific activity Bekhterev. He sees in it too much vague and unsaid, what is expressed only in verbal form. He is more attracted to the physiology of the brain, the possibility of studying it by setting up experiments with obtaining specific results. At that time, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was the main authority in this area. It was in his laboratory that Anokhin entered in 1922. attracts a young scientist to experiments on internal inhibition - the bottleneck of his theory of conditioned reflexes.

Faithful disciple of Pavlov

To be afraid of routine in science, not to allow a one-sided view in the work, to avoid blindly following the same conclusions, even if they are part of a seemingly harmonious theory - this is how the great physiologist taught his employees. Therefore, when in 1924 the article “On Dialectical Materialism and Mental Problems” appeared, in which some employees of the Pavlovian laboratory saw an attempt on the basic provisions of the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, and the author of which was Anokhin, the academician himself came to the defense of the young scientist.

On the recommendation of Pavlov, Anokhin first became a teacher at the Department of Physiology of the Leningrad Zootechnical Institute, and then a professor at the Medical Faculty of the University of Nizhny Novgorod. On the basis of this faculty, the Gorky Medical Institute was formed, where Anokhin began his independent scientific and pedagogical activity at the Department of Physiology. The academician, whose biography was associated with Gorky for a long time, left a noticeable mark in the history of the institute and the whole city.

Institute of Experimental Medicine

On the basis of the Department of Physiology of the Gorky Medical Institute, which Anokhin turned into one of the best in the country, a branch of the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine was created in 1932, of which Anokhin became the director.

In 1935, he was transferred to work at VNIEM in Moscow as head of the department of neurophysiology, in which he was actively engaged in experimental studies of higher nervous activity. He establishes active links with clinical institutions, where he conducts joint research with practicing neurologists and neurosurgeons. The results of these works played an important role during Anokhin's work on the problems of military injuries of the peripheral nervous system during the Great Patriotic War.

The struggle for the purity of scientific series

Many historians of Russian science argue that the removal of Anokhin from the capital to the periphery - to the then Nizhny Novgorod, was carried out at the initiative of Pavlov in order to save him from the inevitable persecution for too independent ideas and actions. So many ideological fighters were shocked by Anokhin's decision to stop paying party dues in order to voluntarily leave the party. He considered that social work could interfere with his scientific studies.

Both Anokhin the student and Anokhin the academician proclaimed their loyalty to the fundamental provisions of the Pavlovian theory. The scientist argued that the greatest harm domestic science brought by those interpreters of the legacy of the great physiologist who, due to unreasonableness, brought into the category the ideas expressed by Pavlov as mere assumptions or possible assumptions that do not affect the content and truth of the basic postulates of the theory.

Subsequently, he will remember a lot at the famous Pavlovsk session - a joint meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, which took place in the summer of 1950. On it, following genetics, Soviet physiology was purged. Several leading scientists, respected throughout the scientific world, were subjected to severe persecution for "deviations from the teachings of Academician Pavlov" and for worshiping the bourgeois idealist trends in physiological science. The closest and most faithful students of Pavlov - L. Orbeli, A. Speransky, I. Beritashvili, L. Stern were subjected to ostracism. The views expressed by Academician Anokhin were also subjected to harsh criticism. Pyotr Kuzmich, whose biography was associated with the Institute of Physiology at the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, which he created in 1944, was removed from leadership and until 1953 - until Stalin's death - worked as a professor at the Department of Physiology of the Medical Institute in Ryazan.

Major scientific contribution

The theory of functional systems is a natural result of the development of Pavlovian theory. This theory is considered by many to be the main scientific achievement of the scientist, his most important contribution to the world science of human brain. It consists in describing the life processes of the organism due to the existence in it of special private associations and organizations that act with the help of nervous and humoral (carried out through liquid media) regulations.

Such systems are called self-regulating because there is constant improvement. The result of the action of such systems is a behavioral act, for the evaluation of which there is a reverse afferentation - feedback. This concept is fundamental for the science of the methods of obtaining, transmitting, storing and transforming information - cybernetics. The father of this science, Norbert Wiener, highly valued the works authored by Academician Anokhin. The photo taken during the joint walk of Viner and Anokhin in Moscow has become a symbol of the close relationship between the two sciences.

Biological wakefulness and sleep, hunger and satiety, mechanisms of internal inhibition - Anokhin actively dealt with these problems in last years. He combined Scientific research with organizational activities in domestic and foreign scientific societies, participation in the editorial boards of numerous publications, etc.

PC. Anokhin ended his life on March 5, 1974, leaving a good reputation for his human qualities and a huge scientific heritage.

(1898-1974) - Academician, Soviet physiologist.

Pupil I.P. Pavlova. Unlike IP Pavlov, he understood reinforcement not as the effect of an unconditioned stimulus, but as an afferent signal from the reaction itself, indicating its adequacy or inadequacy (reverse afferentation).

Thanks to the mechanism of comparing the reverse afferentation with the image of the final result of the action (action acceptor), the possibility of anticipatory reflection of reality is formed, of which Anokhin considered the conditioned reflex to be a special case.

On this basis, he put forward the theory of functional systems. The theory is based on the concept of function as the achievement by the body of an adaptive result in interactions with the environment.

According to the theory, behavior - the active relationship of the organism with the environment - is based on qualitatively specific system processes or processes of organizing elements into a system; behavior is purposeful, as it is directed by a leading reflection of reality.

The relations of the organism with the environment are cyclical: in the interval between the "stimulus" and the beginning of the "reaction", the processes of comparing the parameters of the stimulus with the acceptor of the results of the previous action and the afferent synthesis are distinguished, on the basis of which the decision is made, i.e. choice of purpose and program of action; the beginning of motor activity means the implementation of an action under the determining influence of the goal (or the acceptor of the results of the action), the achieved real results are also compared with the acceptor of the results of the action, the next cycle of the organism's active relationship with the environment begins.

The interpretation of the neuro-mechanisms of behavior as functional systems was put forward by I. M. Sechenov and developed by L. A. Ukhtomsky. Similar ideas are contained in the physiology of activity by N. A. Bernshtein.

P. K. Anokhin - Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences - the largest Russian physiologist of the 20th century. Creator of the theory of functional systems. Author of 6 monographs and more than 250 scientific articles. For many years he was the representative of the USSR in the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO). Among the students of P.K. Anokhin are now prominent physiologists in Germany, Egypt, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania, China, Mongolia, and the former republics of the USSR.

• * 1898 January 14 (27) was born in the city of Tsaritsyn.
• * 1921-1926 Student of Leningrad state institute medical knowledge (GIMZ). Under the leadership of V.M. Bekhtereva in the 1st year conducts her first scientific work "The influence of major and minor vibrations of sounds on excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex".
• * 1926-1930 Senior Assistant, Associate Professor, Department of Physiology, Leningrad Zootechnical Institute. He continued to work at the Pavlovsk Laboratory. At the department, he performed research on the study of the characteristics of the blood supply to the brain, the effect of acetylcholine on the vascular and secretory functions of the salivary gland.
• * 1930-1935 Head of the Department of Physiology of the Gorky Medical Institute and the Department of Physiology of the Faculty of Biology of the University of Nizhny Novgorod. He proposed fundamentally new methods for studying conditioned reflexes: the secretory-motor method, as well as an original method with a sudden substitution of unconditioned reinforcement. This method allowed P.K. Anokhin to come to the conclusion about the formation of a special apparatus in the central nervous system, which contains the parameters of the future reinforcement (the model of the future result is “prepared excitation”). Later, this apparatus was called the "acceptor of the result of the action." At the same time, the concept of “sanctioning afferentation” is introduced, later “reverse afferentation”. He began to study the central-peripheral relationships in nervous activity using the method of heterogeneous nerve anastomoses. In the preface to the collective monograph "Problems of the Center and Periphery in the Physiology of Nervous Activity" (1935), he gives the first definition of a "functional system".
• * 1935-1944 Head of the Department of Neurophysiology of VIEM. In the department, he continued in-depth studies of the problem of the center and periphery in nervous activity, not only in the general biological, but also in the embryological aspect.
• * 1944-1950 Head of the Department of Physiology of the Nervous System of the Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, since 1946 - deputy director of the Institute for scientific work, since 1949 - director of the Institute. 1945 Elected a full member of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR. 1949 Publication of the collective monograph "Problems of Higher Nervous Activity". 1950 At the Pavlovsk session of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, he was accused of revising the ideological foundations of the materialistic teachings of I.P. Pavlov and relieved of all posts.
• * 1950-1952 Head of the Department of Physiology of the Ryazan Medical Institute.
• * 1951-1958 Head of the Laboratory of Physiology and Pathology of the Institute of Surgery. A.V. Vishnevsky Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR. In the laboratory, he continued research on higher nervous activity, the pathogenesis of hypertension, investigated the issues of hypothermia, the role of the reticular formation in the mechanism of anesthesia, pain sensations, etc. Works on the study of the patterns of compensation of impaired functions were summarized in the brochure "General principles of compensation for impaired functions and their physiological justification" (1955).
• * 1955-1974 Head of the Department of Normal Physiology of the 1st Moscow Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner of Labor Medical Institute. THEM. Sechenov. Head of the Sechenov Institute of Physiology. During this period, he develops and finally formulates the main provisions of the theory of functional systems, includes in the operational architectonics of a functional system a number of basic nodal mechanisms that unfold in a certain dynamic sequence: afferent synthesis, decision-making stage, acceptor of the result of action, program of action, result of activity, reverse afferentation from action result. Based on the theory of functional systems, he developed the theory of system genesis. He proposed a new interpretation of the role of the reticular formation in the mechanisms of sleep and wakefulness, the mechanisms of pain and the selective action of drugs, the neurochemical interpretation of various components of the evoked potential, experimentally substantiated the convergent theory of conditioned reflex closure, proposed the hypothesis of the integrative activity of the neuron, etc.
• * 1966 Elected full member (academician) of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Awarded with the Order Red Banner of Labor "for great services in the field of health protection of the Soviet people and in the development of medical science and the medical industry."
• * 1972 Awarded the Lenin Prize for the monograph "Biology and Neurophysiology of the Conditioned Reflex", published in 1968.
• * 1974 Publication of the work "System analysis of the integrative activity of the neuron", where the main ideas about intraneuronal processing of information were formulated.
• * On March 5, 1974, he died in Moscow and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery.

Nikolai Evgenievich Vvedensky With his studies of the physiology of the neuromuscular apparatus, he made a huge contribution to the general treasury of world science. He was born on April 16, 1852 in the village of Kochkovo, Vologda province, in the family of a village priest. At first he studied at the Vologda Theological Seminary, and then in 1872 he entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University. Arrested in the fall of 1874 by the tsarist government in the political process of the 193s, N. E. Vvedensky spent more than three years in prison. After serving his sentence, he was under police surveillance for a long time. Only from 1878 was he able to continue his university education and entered the department natural sciences Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University, after which he remained to work in the laboratory of the famous Russian physiologist I. M. Sechenov. In 1883, N. E. Vvedensky began to lecture on the physiology of animals and humans at the Higher Women's Courses, and in 1884, having defended his master's thesis, he began lecturing at St. Petersburg University. In 1887, he defended his dissertation for a doctorate, and when I. M. Sechenov left St. Petersburg University in 1889, Nikolai Evgenievich Vvedensky, as his closest student and outstanding collaborator, was elected professor at the university.

N. E. Vvedensky spent his whole life in the laboratory on elucidating the basic laws of the work of the neuromuscular system, and when he died, they wrote about him: "Vvedensky stopped working in the laboratory, Vvedensky died."

He took an active part in world congresses of physiologists and physicians, representing Russian physiological science. In 1900, he was elected honorary president of the Paris Congress of Medicine, and then Russia's representative to the Bureau for the Organization of International Congresses of Physiologists.

N. E. Vvedensky began to study the neuromuscular apparatus immediately after his first youthful works - on the effect of light on reflex excitability and on breathing - and until the end of his life he did not leave this area of ​​\u200b\u200bresearch, giving a number of classical works and substantiating the theory of the main issues of general physiology . He began his work by telephone listening to the nervous process. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, physiologists noticed that the muscles during contraction emit the so-called "muscle tone" - a sound showing that the rhythm of individual single excitations underlies the natural excitation of the muscle. But no one could catch a similar rhythm directly from the nerve. This was first done by N. E. Vvedensky. Listening to the telephone impulses that are transmitted through the nerve during its work, he found that nervous excitation is a rhythmic process. Now that powerful amplifiers with cathode lamps and very advanced oscilloscopes are available in physiological laboratories, this rhythm of nervous excitation is recorded in the form of electrograms on photographic paper. The electrophysiological method of studying the nervous system of humans and animals is one of the most subtle and objective methods. modern science, but it rests on the data of N. E. Vvedensky, who managed to make a brilliant discovery of the rhythmic nature of nervous excitation with a simple telephone.

With his experiments with the inhibition of skeletal muscle by frequent and strong nerve irritations, described in the main work of N. E. Vvedensky "On the relationship between irritation and excitation in tetanus", he approached in a new way to the most important problem of physiology - the relationship between excitation and inhibition as the main processes nervous system.

In physiology, inhibition of any organ is not rest; only by outward expression can it be mixed with peace. Inhibition is active calming down, "organized rest."

The discovery of the very fact that the nervous system (centers) can create inhibition in peripheral organs belongs to the teacher N. E. Vvedensky, the founder of Russian physiology - I. M. Sechenov. But N. E. Vvedensky was the first to establish that the “active calming” of an organ from a nerve approaching it can be the result of the stimulation that excites this organ itself and does not require the existence of a special inhibitory center, as was commonly believed before.

Based on many years of work with the neuromuscular apparatus, N. E. Vvedensky gave his theory of nervous inhibition, widely known in the world physiological literature as "Vvedensky's inhibition." In one case, the nerve approaching the muscle excites it, in the other case, the same nerve slows it down, actively calms it, because it is at that time itself excited by strong and frequent irritations that fall on it. In other words, N. E. Vvedensky showed that the processes of the nervous system, which are opposite in their effect - excitation and inhibition, are connected by mutual transitions one into another and, other things being equal, are functions of the amount and magnitude of irritation.

With his classical studies, N. E. Vvedensky made an enormous contribution to the treasury of world physiology. His name is on a par with the names of I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov - the founders of Russian physiology.

Introduction:

Physiology is a science that studies the life processes of an organism, its various organs and systems, their interaction with each other and the external environment.

Already in ancient times, elementary ideas about the activities of the human body were formulated. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) represented human body in the form of the unity of liquid media and the mental make-up of the personality. In the Middle Ages, ideas based on the postulates of the Roman anatomist Galen dominated.

In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries Physiological research has also received significant development in Russia thanks to the research of I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936) and other Russian scientists.

An important merit in physiology belongs to I.M. Sechenov, who first discovered the presence of inhibition processes in the central nervous system and, on the basis of this, created the doctrine of the reflex activity of the body. His work "Reflexes of the brain" served as the basis for the formation of the doctrine of nervism. In this work, he suggested that the various manifestations of human mental activity ultimately come down to muscle movement. Ideas IM. Sechenov was later successfully developed by the famous Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov.

On the basis of an objective study of behavioral reactions, he created a new direction in science - the physiology of higher nervous activity. The teachings of I.P. Pavlov on the higher nervous activity of man and animals made it possible to deepen the theory of the reflex activity of the brain.