Forgive me the frivolous pun, but you can't call it otherwise: Today's festive post is dedicated to women scientists who have made significant progress in the sciences of the brain. Almost everyone has heard about women physicists and mathematicians, but in the 20th century, with the active development of neurosciences, many discoveries in Russian (and world) science became possible thanks to the research of female scientists. It is also important that they are the authors of popular science publications, so each of us can get acquainted with the results of their many years of work.

First of all, it is worth calling Natalia Petrovna Bekhtereva (1924-2008).
This outstanding neurophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and later of the Russian Academy of Sciences, became famous for her work in the field of brain activity. Natalia Bekhtereva is considered the creator of the scientific school for the study of the physiology of a healthy and diseased brain, she developed her own theory of the brain organization of human mental activity. She organized the Institute of the Human Brain of the Russian Academy of Sciences (which after the death of the founder was named after her), where fundamental research is carried out on the organization of the brain and its mental functions: speech, emotions, attention, memory, creativity. In addition, Bekhtereva did not deny the study of paranormal phenomena (for which she was criticized), which indicates her scientific spontaneity and courage. Her works are recognized both in Russia and abroad.
To get acquainted with the main provisions of N.P. Bekhtereva can be found in her fascinating popular science book "The Magic of the Brain and the Labyrinths of Life."

Evgeniya Davydovna Chomskaya (1929-2004) - Doctor of Psychology, neuropsychologist and psychophysiologist. In the middle of the 20th century, she was one of the first to study the psychosemantic characteristics of consciousness. Her work is related to the study of the functional asymmetry of the brain, the interhemispheric organization of mental processes, she studied individual differences from the standpoint of neuropsychology, introduced new approaches to psychological research methods, and also wrote the first Russian textbook on neuropsychology.
Not the easiest, but still a fascinating book for reading - "The Brain and Emotions. Neuropsychological Research".

Tatiana Vasilievna Akhutina (born 1941) - Doctor of Psychology, specialist in the field of neuropsychology, neuro- and psycholinguistics. The main works that brought her fame were related to research in the field of speech (in the neurolinguistic and neuropsychological aspects): Tatyana Akhutina developed her own model of speech generation. In addition, the scientist is engaged in children's neuropsychology, the development of speech in children and methods of overcoming learning difficulties.
Parents may be interested in her following textbook: "Overcoming Learning Difficulties: A Neuropsychological Approach."

Tatiana Vladimirovna Chernigovskaya (born 1947) is a leading specialist in the field of cognitive science - neurophysiology, neuropsychology, psycholinguistics, as well as the theory of consciousness. Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Education, Tatyana Chernigovskaya has many titles (including, for example, a member of the Academy of Sciences of Norway) for research in the field of brain functioning, its ability to acquire language, learn and perceive information from the outside world, and much more. Of particular value is her activity in the field of popularization of sciences, as well as the organization of education, taking into account the latest achievements in cognitive science.
You can read about the results of her long-term and versatile activity in her book "Cheshire Smile of Schrödinger's Cat. Language and Consciousness"

Among the younger generation of women scientists, Maria Vyacheslavovna Falikman (born 1976), Doctor of Psychology, winner of a number of prestigious awards, author of over a hundred publications in the field of cognitive science, general psychology and neuroscience. A special place in her work is occupied by research in the field of memory and attention.
It is hard to find something more or less accessible to ordinary amateurs among her works, but Maria Falikman is a regular author of video lectures on the popular science portal Postnauka.

In the 21st century, scientists face perhaps the greatest challenge in the history of science: understanding the brain. Our century has already been dubbed the century of the brain and consciousness sciences by analogy with how the last century was called the age of genetics. The task is incredibly difficult, if only because usually the instrument with which the research is carried out is more complex than the object of research. Now, with the help of the mind, we are trying to understand the mind itself. Will it succeed?

What is a brain, what do we need it for?

The brain is the most complex and least studied organ in our body. Weighing only 1–2 kg (the average weight is somewhere in the middle), it consumes 20% of the energy produced by our body. More than 70% of the genes of our genome are actively working in its cells (in other cells this figure is much lower). The gray matter consists of more than 90 billion neurons, each of which has up to 10 thousand connections with other neurons (not necessarily neighboring ones - for example, the processes of motor neurons are more than a meter long).

But all this is biology, not so interesting. But what about consciousness?

Since ancient times, only philosophy has dealt with this issue. Plato and Aristotle believed that mind exists as an ontological reality separate from matter. Parmenides, on the other hand, argued that being and thinking are one. Now the natural sciences have joined this process.

In recent years, research has reached a level where we can afford to start studying the brain in action. It covers molecules, cells, their connections, as well as higher matter - behavior, which is consciousness.

Scientists have long dreamed of artificial intelligence, but more often than not they paint it as a monster out of control, acting not for the good of humanity (science fiction films "The Terminator", "On the Hook", "I, Robot").

In one of the recent films, "Excellence," a speech model and special algorithms for its processing were used to create artificial intelligence. Such ideas are not unfounded. It is believed that it is the speech model that contributes to the active development of the hemispheres, and it is responsible for our ability to learn and predict events and, ultimately, for decision making.

Indeed, based on the experience we have, we make decisions about actions, and after they have been committed, we compare the intended result with the actual one. So the brain gives us a glimpse into the future.

Risen artificial intelligence is the theme of more than one science fiction novel and film

But how to make the machine think?

The stumbling block of any artificial intelligence is precisely its learning algorithms. The advantage of people over all other inhabitants of our planet is the ability to think abstractly, to build generalizations of various levels. Now the development of so-called deep learning algorithms is a highly demanded area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. Large IT companies are actively interested in such algorithms. For example, Google recently acquired DeepMind Technologies, which specializes in just such tasks. The market is huge here. They can be used for speech recognition, face recognition, the development of "smart" user interfaces in electronic devices, prosthetics, etc. Success in this area is already bearing fruit.

Ideas such as the Terminator T-800 processor of a completely new architecture or Skynet, or the creation of clones in the Sixth Day and The Island no longer seem unrealizable.

Research is ongoing. Colossal funds are spent on studying the brain all over the world. In 2013–2014 large-scale brain research projects have started in the USA, Europe and Japan (Russia is on its way). Who knows - maybe the future that science fiction writers write about is just around the corner.

Why study the brain?

A healthy human brain is an incredibly complex, finely tuned system, for the normal functioning of which every element is important, and these are not only neurons and their networks. The brain is also a set of auxiliary elements: glial cells that carry out nutritional and protective functions for neurons, cells of the vascular system, various extracellular proteins, neurotransmitters. The slightest change in the work of any component of the brain can lead to the emergence and development of its pathologies.

Conventionally, brain pathologies can be divided into three groups.

Neurodegenerative diseases - a group of slowly progressive diseases of the nervous system associated with the death of nerve cells, externally expressed in the form of dementia and disorders of motor functions (Alzheimer's, Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases are the most famous representatives of this group).

Mental disorders associated with disorders in the sphere of feelings, thinking, behavior. This group includes depression, anorexia, bulimia, sleep disorders, alcohol and drug addiction, schizophrenia.

Diseases associated with the vascular system.

All of these diseases occur for different reasons, but at the neuronal level their manifestation is always the same: the transmission of nerve impulses is disrupted. Depending on the cause of such disorders, different treatment is required. But the problem is that we still don't know the causes of these diseases.

There are theories, assumptions, some of them are partially confirmed, others are not. But now, without exception, all methods of treating these diseases act on the symptoms, not the causes. So, research into the mechanisms of the emergence and development of such diseases is literally vital, this is exactly the knowledge that is so lacking, and funding for such experiments is very useful.

Kill Alzheimer

It was believed that Alzheimer's disease develops due to a lack of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system). Then they came up with the idea of \u200b\u200btreating the disease with inhibitors of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. The enzyme is located at the junction of neurons and destroys acetylcholine, thus providing an interruption of the nerve impulse. By the way, many agricultural pesticides and chemical warfare agents (sarin, soman and VX) are the strongest inhibitors of this enzyme, they cause paralysis of the parasympathetic nervous system (a person simply stops breathing). The effect of therapy was minimal. Another theory was the formation of amyloid plaques, they learned to dissolve them using antibodies, but this method also did not work. There is a theory that the structure of the tau protein, which maintains the structure of the transport system within the neuron, is disrupted. Now it is being actively checked.

New approaches to the treatment of disorders of the nervous system

Currently, there are already many modern technologies for treating diseases, some of which are used in clinical practice, while others are just undergoing adaptation. Since many disorders of the central nervous system are associated with the malfunctioning of genes (the presence of errors in them, disruption of their regulatory systems), molecular and cellular therapy technologies are aimed at correcting such errors.

The idea behind such methods is simple: using the right means, we deliver the therapeutic agent to the right place and to the right cell level, where the correction takes place. Levels - DNA, RNA, proteins, simple substances. The agents can be simple substances (most modern drugs), active proteins, enzymes, specific antibodies, RNA fragments, even DNA. For example, viruses can be used as delivery vehicles.

Below are some examples of such technologies.

Therapy using miRNA. MiRNA molecules bind to messenger RNA (an intermediate element in the synthesis of proteins, the main active elements of our body); such complexes are recognized by cellular systems and destroyed (this way you can reduce the synthesis of a protein in the cell).

Synthetic transcription factors. These substances bind to DNA and activate the process of synthesis of messenger RNA (these agents, on the contrary, can increase protein production).

Synthetic nucleases for gene editing. These methods make it possible to directly correct the genome (we eliminate the defect and re-synthesize the cell components will work without disturbances).

Use of antibodies. Antibodies are produced by our body in response to the appearance of foreign substances in it - for example, viruses, foreign proteins. People have long learned to synthesize artificial antibodies. With their help, it is possible to eliminate various formations in the brain (for example, the elimination of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease).

Problems with the active use of these methods are associated with a lack of knowledge about the object of treatment. The brain and central nervous system are too complex and multi-component, and their pathologies are most often caused by several factors. Research in this area will allow the development and testing of new breakthrough technologies for the treatment of neuropathologies.

Brain Research Programs

The brain as an object of research has been of interest to the scientific community for a long time. A colossal number of projects have been completed, the same number are in the active phase or at the development stage. Their tasks cover the entire spectrum of interests of the scientific community: these are studies of the molecular mechanisms of the processes of transmission of nerve impulses, and the search for new therapeutic agents, tools, the development of new research methods, diagnosis and treatment of pathologies, the development of maps of various degrees of resolution. The pioneers of brain research are the European Union, the United States and Japan.

A common drawback of all initiatives is their fragmentation. Until now, research has been carried out within the interests of individual scientific groups. Now they are going to fix this situation.

National brain and consciousness research initiatives have been launched in Europe, the United States and Japan. They partially overlap, which can facilitate the creation of successful research consortia and obtain the most complete information about the research object. But the main objectives of these projects complement each other well, which will allow the scientific community to get the maximum benefit.

European programs

The main financing instrument scientific research in the European Union are the Framework Programs for Research and Technological Development (FP). The programs were first introduced in 1984 (FP1). Since then, research funding has grown steadily, and by 2014 it had grown more than 20 times. The FP8 program, or "Horizon 2020", envisages total funding of more than € 80 billion.

Henry Markram is a professor of neuroscience at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL). He is the founder of the Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, the initiator and leader of the Blue Brain project and the coordinator of the main subprogramme (SP6) of the Human Brain project. His research interests lie in the field of synoptic plasticity (the ability of neurons to form connections with each other), structural organization and brain function, as well as signaling in the neocortex (new cerebral cortex). He was the first to formulate the fundamental principles of the functioning of these processes.

Another incredibly important achievement was his development of the concept of the "Liquid Machine", or "Machine of unstable states" (Liquid State Machine, LMS). This is a special network of neurons (nodes, if we are talking about machines) connected to each other in a random way. Each node continuously receives signals from other nodes and / or external sources and immediately begins to process them. The system also outputs a continuous signal at the output. The uniqueness of this approach is that in a unit of time a machine can contain important information about all past input signals, while information flows can be processed simultaneously without interfering with each other.

This model was used by Henry Macram to simulate the operation of neural networks in the Blue Brain project. This project is an example of how one person can change the world. Thanks to his own achievements and energy, Henry Macram was able to obtain a grant for research that was considered impracticable before him.

Research funding in Europe

At the same time, research related to the brain in the period from 2007 to 2013. received about € 2 billion. For comparison, by 2005 the total amount of financial investments in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge did not exceed € 4.1 billion. This amount includes private and public investments; the share of the latter barely reaches € 900 million (in the United States, private and public investment for the same period amounted to $ 6.1 and $ 8.4 billion, respectively).

Among the many research programs approved by the European Union, it is worth highlighting some of the most significant and / or large-scale projects. One of them is the Blue Brain program.

Blue brain

In this project, the principles of constructing brain models were developed, which, having proven their effectiveness, for the first time made the scientific community believe in their predictive potential. These principles formed the basis of the Brain Simulation Platform (SP6) of the Human Brain Project (see below). The inspiration and director of the program was Henry Macram (professor of neuroscience at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology).

The name of the project comes from the name of the Blue Gene supercomputer provided by IBM and used for distributed computing, and the actual object of research - the brain.

Modeling as a research tool has long been included in scientific practice. For example, molecular docking methods are actively used to search for new targets in drug development.

The Blue Brain project resulted in a working computer model that is capable of predicting the location of synapses in the cerebral cortex with a high probability (about 74%). In their developments, the authors used data obtained in the course of their own biological experiments, and not mathematical models (quite a lot of such were created by the time the project was implemented).

The exact mechanism of synapse formation is still unknown. There are two hypotheses: connections between neurons are formed randomly at the points of contact between their processes and connections are formed under the control of chemical compounds secreted by cells.

In the course of morphological experiments in the Blue Brain project (a rat was a model animal), its authors identified six types of neurons and their synoptic connections. Further, using only two parameters (the distance of the synapse from the body of the neuron and the location of the processes on it), the researchers identified the scheme of the location of the synapses that is characteristic of each type of neuron.

In a model experiment, neurons were randomly arranged inside a strictly defined volume of gray matter, taking into account only two parameters: the density of location and the relative number of cells of each type. In almost 75% of cases, the model correctly indicated the presence of connections between cells. Hence, we can conclude about a random mechanism of synapse formation. The remaining percentages may indicate more complex molecular mechanisms involved in this process.

Studying the processes of human memory functioning at Sandia National Laboratories (USA) by taking an electroencephalogram of the brain

Be that as it may, the work showed that to build a connectome (a model of the brain, the spatial arrangement of cells and, most importantly, the connections between them), it is enough to place neurons of different types in the correct areas of the cerebral cortex with a suitable density and in the required amount. It turns out that there is no need to map the position of each neuron in the cortex, as was previously thought, but it is enough to have only a general idea of \u200b\u200btheir location.

It was this conclusion that gave rise to the activities of the Human Brain project. In January 2013, the European Union announced its support.

However, at the moment we still have insufficient knowledge about the types of nerve cells present in our body, their differences at the molecular level. And besides neurons, there are also glial cells and cells of the vascular system, without which neurons cannot perform their functions. And one of the priority tasks of the Human Brain is to fill in the missing data, using which the model will become more accurate.

Human Brain Project
(The Human Brain Project, HBP)

The Human Brain project (grant number 604102) was launched in early October 2013. This initiative is a flagship project in the brain research of the European Commission of the future and the latest technologies over the next 8 years now (the end of the project is scheduled for 2023). During this time, it is planned not only to conduct scientific research, but also to actively implement the results obtained in the form of methods, new knowledge, technologies in life.

Human Brain project routines

According to Henry Markram, professor and founder of the Brain and Mind Institute, scientists intend to recreate the human brain in the smallest detail within its framework.

"From the genetic, molecular level to neurons and synapses, then to neuronal circuits, macrocircuits, mesocircuits, lobes of the brain - until there is an understanding of how all these levels are interconnected and how they determine behavior and form consciousness", says Markram.

Thus, the global goal of the HBP project is to create an accurate model that will allow us to understand how our brain works, how we think, make decisions, and feel. What processes are at the heart of memory. After all, a clear understanding of how one and a half kilograms of biomaterial works in our head, while consuming 20% \u200b\u200bof the energy produced by the whole body, will allow us to develop tools for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, which are increasingly suffering from aging humanity.

Moreover: having such models, we will be able to get closer to the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an artificial intelligence. But it's not that simple. According to Henry Markram himself, if consciousness appears as a result of a critical mass of interactions, then it may be possible, but we really do not understand what consciousness is, so it is difficult to talk about it. At least for now.

The project involves 113 partner organizations, 21 implementing organizations, including the world's leading universities (24 countries in total), which makes the project international. Commercial companies specializing in the study of brain pathologies, the development and implementation of new therapeutic approaches to the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases based on the latest advances and developments in science and technology are also actively involved in this project.

The project roadmap includes the following tasks:

Brain simulation;

Development of computing and robotic systems;

Development of an interactive computing system;

Brain pathology map;

Creation of brain maps of mice and humans;

Development of theories of the brain;

Accelerating revolutionary research;

Collaboration with other research projects;

Translation of the Program results into technologies, products and services;

Pursuing a policy of responsible research and innovation.

The initiative is divided into several subprojects (SP1 – SP13), each of which performs its own function. At the same time, SP5 – SP10 projects have the status of platforms by their scale and significance.

In total, it is planned to spend about € 1.2 billion on the Human Brain project. Funding for the preliminary phase of the project, during which the adaptation of new research methods, the establishment of connections, contacts between participating organizations, is € 54 million.

In April 2015, a technical report on the work done during the year since the start of the project was published on the project website after a general meeting of the main participants.

The first year of the program became organizational. Its participants mastered, developed new methods, improved the tools. In general, the results of each study group (of course, there are always exceptions) fit into the established timetable. A general comment to all participants is that there is not enough cross-communication between them. Moreover, this only remark significantly affects the plans for the implementation of the entire project.

Required Computer Cluster Performance for Brain Modeling Projects

And do not count!

High Performance Computing (SP7) members face a daunting task. The fact is that to implement the ambitious goals of the Human Brain project, computing systems of colossal power will be required. The Blue Gene supercomputer from IBM used in the Blue Brain project had enough resources (300 thousand teraflops and 10 TB of RAM) to simulate the operation of one column of the rat neocortex (a structural unit of the brain, there are 100 thousand such columns in the rat brain). To simulate the work of the human brain, it will take more than 100 thousand times a powerful cluster (see figure). For comparison, 6-core intel processor The Core i7-4930K with a frequency of 3.7-4.2 GHz has a performance of 130-140 gigaflops (theoretical peak 177 GFlops). This means that theoretically over 7 million of such processors will be required to create such a cluster.

In general, nothing is impossible here, there would be money. For example, Intel plans to create a supercomputer with a capacity of 4 exaflops by 2020. Nevertheless, the work on commissioning and maintaining such systems is extremely difficult, so we wish the researchers good luck.

Since the priority scientific result of the Human Brain project should be a model of the human brain (by analogy, it will be easy to develop a model of the brain of any mammal), built on data obtained from biological experiments, its authors (subprogram SP6) are simply obliged to actively interact with other participants in this initiative to obtain and use this information. Moreover, there is a double benefit from such interaction. On the one hand, a working model is built on the basis of such data (SP6), on the other hand, as it is tested, it becomes obvious which studies are still lacking (SP1, SP2, SP3, SP4). This process will allow for more targeted planning of experiments.

Expert feedback gives the impression that SP1 and SP2 work independently of SP6's goals and objectives. The situation is similar with SP3 and SP4. At the same time, it is the “raw” data that is still insufficient to build a working model of the brain.

A team of researchers from Yale University is studying brain function using an array of 64 sensors on the heads of patients

It is noteworthy that it was to the model developers - and they are the heart of the project - that the experts had most of the complaints. The engineers of the Neurobots (SP10) platform also got it, who built the Virtual Mouse model, where they used a simplified model of the brain linked to a body model (all located in a virtual environment). The model is based on data from the Allen Brain Institute (Seattle, USA), the Biomedical Information Research Network (San Diego, USA) and data obtained as a result of the Blue Brain project (Geneva, EU). In the presented simplified model, 200 thousand neurons were used (a total of 75 million neurons in the mouse brain).

Such a model is undoubtedly interesting in itself, since, firstly, it is an example of solving the problem of integrating various kinds of data obtained from various sources, and secondly, it is a powerful tool not only for research, but also for working out intellectual behavior of objects in robotics (mechanism of response to external excitation).

However, the experts' claims to the SP10 group were that the latter focused more on the ergonomics of the developed tools, as well as on visualization packages to the detriment of the properties of the models themselves (brain, body, environment). This circumstance, according to experts, casts doubt on the possibility of using and the scientific value of such tools.

In defense of the project, we can say that by the time the results were provided, only a year had passed since its beginning, and with due effort, these shortcomings can be easily corrected.

Research in the USA

B.R.A.I.N. Initiative

Name "B.R.A.I.N." stands for "Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies" ("Study of the brain through the development of innovative neurotechnologies"). The initiative was transformed from the program Brain activity map, which was supposed to learn how to register the impulses of all neurons in the brain of animals. The objectives of the initiative have significantly expanded and now this project looks even more ambitious than Human Brain, and like most American initiatives.

“We have a deep secret to discover, and the B.R.A.I.N. will help with this. It will give scientists the opportunity to form a dynamic picture of the activity of the brain and better understand how we think, learn and remember, ”- said US President Barack Obama, announcing the launch of the program.

The global research goals are not new: to deepen scientific knowledge about Alzheimer's disease, autism, epilepsy and other disorders associated with higher nervous activity, to explore the possibility of early diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. But the authors of the project do not exclude the possibility of breakthrough discoveries in the process of implementing the initiative.

B.R.A.I.N. involves the creation of an atlas of brain cells based on their complete molecular characteristics (DNA, RNA, proteins, simple molecules), maps of their connections with each other (connectome), tools for combining this data with information about cognitive functions. The initiative also involves the construction of models of healthy brains and brains with various pathologies, which will allow investigating the causes of their occurrence and development. All this in one form or another is present in the European Human Brain Project.

B.R.A.I.N. - accessible language

Now, in order to perform an operation on the human brain (for example, to remove an epileptic area or to implant an implant to eliminate tremor), the surgeon must map it every time. It happens as follows. A man lies on the operating table in full consciousness, his skull has been opened. The doctor gently touches various areas of the brain with a special stimulator, and the patient must answer him how he feels, how his condition has changed. During an almost 4-hour operation in 2008, doctors stimulated various parts of the brain of the American musician Eddie Edcock, and he played the banjo and reported if there was an effect from such stimulation (he had a tremor that interfered with playing). Having localized the area responsible for the manifestation of pathology, an electrode was implanted into it. The patient recovered and gave a concert at the end of the operation.

Non-invasive brain mapping, detailed brain mapping, and targeted stimulation (physical or medication) of specific areas of the gray matter could greatly simplify such procedures. Just imagine: a helmet is put on a patient and sequentially, at some intervals, they begin to excite those parts of the brain that may presumably be responsible for the disease. And all the patient needs is to press the button in time to give the system a signal: I feel better. Easy calibration, point impact - treatment completed, patient is healthy.

The main difference between these two projects is that the Europeans will focus on creating computer models that simulate the work of the brain, while the Americans will primarily develop new technologies, tools, research methods, point effects on the brain (if possible, non-invasive), and only then will they start to fundamental tasks.

About the launch of the B.R.A.I.N. it became known in 2013. The start date of its implementation was announced in September 2014 (from this month funding for most projects begins). The program is designed for 12 years.

Five federal agencies are involved in the project: Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Advanced Intelligence Research Agency (IARPA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and National Science Foundation (NSF). In addition, members of the National Photonics Initiative as well as GE, Google, GlaxoSmithKline and Inscopix contributed their infrastructure to B.R.A.I.N., and many private foundations, organizations and universities have agreed to contribute to research funding.

As the ideologists of the initiative (the main coordinator is the National Institute of Health, NIH) plan, the first two years (fiscal 2014 and 2015) will become preparatory, the main focus of the first five-year period (fiscal 2016-2020) will be aimed at developing new technologies for brain research, and during the next "five years" (2021–2025), using the developed technologies, scientists hope, fundamental discoveries will be made.

The main objectives of B.R.A.I.N.

1. Research on diversity: an experimental description of all types of brain cells, their role in healthy and diseased brains. This is necessary for the systematization of cellular diversity. Using the data obtained, tools will be developed for recording, labeling and manipulating neurons on a living brain, as well as methods for the selective delivery of genes, proteins and simple substances to brain cells.

2. Mapping on a large scale: creating diagrams of neural connections in resolution from individual synapses to the brain as a whole. Such a map will make it possible to identify connections not only between neighboring cells, but also cells located in different parts of the brain, to investigate the relationship between its individual areas. In the future, fast and less expensive technologies will be developed for reconstructing neural networks at any scale (from non-invasive study of the whole brain to the study of individual synapses at the subcellular level).

3. The brain in action: obtaining dynamic pictures of the functioning of the brain using new methods of monitoring neural activity (recording signals from all neural networks over long time intervals). These studies will improve existing and develop new technologies for working with neurons, including methods based on the use of electrodes, optics, molecular genetics, etc.

4. Demonstration of causal relationships: correlating brain activity with behavioral reflexes using tools that change the dynamics of neural networks (activation or inhibition of populations of neurons). Special tools will be developed for manipulating the neural networks of model animals and subsequently humans (for optogenetic, chemogenetic, biochemical and electromagnetic modulations).

The NPI brings together experts from industry, academia and government to assemble recommendations that will help guide US funding and investment in five key photonics-driven fields: advanced manufacturing, communications & IT, defense & national security, energy and health & medicine.

5. Identification of fundamental principles: development of models of biological foundations of psychological processes using new theoretical tools. Theory, modeling and statistical analysis will allow for a comprehensive non-linear analysis of the functional characteristics of the brain. The development of new methods of data analysis and interpretation will be carried out in close cooperation with scientists in the fields of statistics, physics, mathematics, engineering and computer science.

6. Human research: development of innovative technologies for research of the human brain and treatment of its pathologies, creation and support of integrated research consortia. Development of a system for attracting people suffering from various kinds of brain pathologies and undergoing examination and treatment in clinics to scientific research. Such a system, in addition to creating tools for collecting and processing patient data, will require the formation of strict ethical standards and systems for protecting personal data about patients.

7. From the B.R.A.I.N. to the brain: new technologies and approaches described in items 1-6 will demonstrate how dynamic arrays of neural activity are transformed into such actions of the human brain as cognition, emotions, perception and action. This will be the most important outcome of the initiative.

In addition to research tasks, the initiative involves the development of infrastructure projects, among which the most important are:

Organization of parallel studies of human and "non-human" models;

Mechanisms of interdisciplinary interaction;

Integration of data in spatial and temporal scales (dynamic models);

Development of a platform for storing and exchanging data;

Validation and implementation of new technologies in practice;

Ethical implications of applying research results;

Mechanisms for tax reporting of project participants.

Distribution of FG14-FY25 funding between disciplines.

The two ambitious programs of the United States and the European Union are clearly complementary. The presence of their points of intersection makes it possible to organize joint international research. For example, the goals of the SP1 – SP5 subprograms of the Human Brain project coincide with the goals stated in items 1–5 of B.R.A.I.N., and the goals of SP8 coincide with the goals of item 6. As for the infrastructure, it has long been common for the scientific communities of the USA and Europe.

B.R.A.I.N. Initiative provides a total funding of $ 4.9 billion. Expectations of costs of the authors of the project are shown in Fig. below. Thus, within the next 10 years, we can expect the emergence of breakthrough technologies in the study of the brain and the treatment of its pathologies.

Research in Japan

A project called Brain Mapping by Integrated Neurotechnologies for Disease Studies, abbreviated as Brain / MINDS, was launched in June 2014. Funding for the project in 2014 amounted to ¥ 3 billion ($ 27 million), in 2015 it should grow to ¥ 4 billion.

The program is supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEXT). The parent organization will be the RIKEN Brain Science Institute (BSI).

本プロジェクトは、神経細胞がどのように神経回路を形成し、どのように情報処理を行うことによって、全体性の高い脳の機能を実現しているかについて、革新的技術を生かし、その全容を明らかにし、精神・神経疾患の克服につながるヒトの高次脳機能の解明のための基盤を構築することを目的として実施します。

The project aims to explore a fundamental question: how does human consciousness work? The initiative has the following goals: to find out all the functions of the human brain; to improve methods of diagnosis and treatment of its pathologies; to develop information technologies based on the mechanisms of the brain.

An important feature of the Brain / MINDS project is that its authors will conduct most of the research on model animals - Callithrix jacchus monkeys. They are small in size and reproduce well, so they are convenient to work with and easy to replenish the population. In addition, in terms of brain anatomy, social behavior (including the relationship between parents and offspring), these monkeys are similar to humans. They have unique vocal abilities, besides, the models of their neurodegenerative diseases and humans are very similar.

Other important advantages of working with model animals and with Callithrix jacchus monkeys:

The frontal frontal cortex is well developed and more consistent with the human cortex than in other model animals — for example, rodents, which are often used in experiments;

The compact brain (weighing only 8 g) is an advantage when analyzing the neural networks of the whole brain;

The brain has fewer layers, which simplifies the procedure for studying it using functional magnetic resonance imaging, optical, contrast, and electrophysiological methods;

Genetic experiments, modifications and manipulations can be carried out with monkeys - this is an extremely important aspect of this project, since it allows in vivo modeling and study of many processes (for example, you can create a line that will surely suffer, say, Alzheimer's disease).

With the help of research on transgenic animals (in Japan, unlike the USA and the EU, the legislation allows such experiments), scientists will be able to determine the starting points for the development of neurodegenerative diseases. When Alzheimer's disease is diagnosed, that is, when its first symptoms begin to appear, nothing can be done. The process of degradation of nerve fibers is launched, cells die, the brain shrinks, a person loses memory, death occurs. Early diagnosis is the key to successful treatment for any pathology. Thus, having determined the starting point, having studied the process of the onset and development of the disease in its entirety, it is possible to develop therapeutic means not only for treatment, but also for preventing such pathologies in principle.

In addition, modern therapy technologies will be tested on animals - all those mentioned at the beginning of the article.

More about DTI-MRI

The method of diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging with tractography is based on measuring the magnitude and direction of diffusion of water molecules in the brain substance. It was found that the movement of water molecules along the fibers of white matter is much more active than in perpendicular directions, this difference formed the basis for obtaining diffusion tensor images. Using this method, you can assess the degree of brain damage. It allows you to create a three-dimensional reconstruction of white matter fibers, as well as detect and evaluate damage to nerve connections. In addition, the data obtained with its help can be used to establish correlations between damage to neural connections and neurological deficits in the corresponding system.

To identify the mechanisms underlying the processes occurring in our head (feelings, behavior, pathologies), researchers must integrate a large amount of data at different levels.

To this end, the tasks of the project are divided into three categories, each of which is dealt with by a separate group of researchers:

Group A - structure and functional mapping of the brain of the monkey Callithrix jacchus;

Group B - development of innovative neurotechnologies for brain mapping;

Group C - Human Brain Mapping and Clinical Research.

Group A is managed by Professor Hideyuki Okano (RIKEN Institute of Brain Science and Keio University School of Medicine). Research is divided into several levels: macro-, meso- and microscopic.

At the macro level, the authors demonstrated the potential of diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging with tractography (DTI-MRI) in the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. Studies carried out on model animals (monkeys with Parkinson's disease) have shown that the method can detect changes in the brain regions responsible for the development of this disease, which can be used in clinical practice. Using DTI-MRI, a three-dimensional model of the monkey brain was built, which can be used to compare the brain with pathology and the brain of the control group. The authors intend, in close collaboration with clinicians (group B), to investigate the possibility of using this method in the diagnosis of various neurodegenerative diseases.

The fibrous structure of white matter and regions of the monkey's entire brain was reconstructed in virtual space using data obtained using the DTI-MRI method with tractography. Fibers of white matter contain many continuous filaments that connect different areas of the brain. On the structure of the whole brain, you can also see the connections of areas with each other.

The expression of genes responsible for the occurrence and development of brain pathologies, as well as physiological functions such as vision, will be investigated by means of light microscopy (medium resolution level), the introduction of fluorescent labels and in situ hybridization. Using adenoviruses, the group will introduce genes for the synthesis of various fluorescent proteins (these proteins glow when they are excited by radiation of a certain wavelength) and, thus, track neurons, the distribution of their axons, and connections with other cells. In addition, unique lines of monkeys defective in one or several genes associated with the organization of the brain will be created specifically for the purpose of developing maps.

The human brain is the most complex organ in its structure. Even in the era of innovative methods of diagnosis, constant research of this organ, scientists still cannot fully describe the physiological mechanisms of its various mental functions. Constant research by scientists affects not only its physiological characteristics, but also mental processes such as thinking, memory, sleep, attention and a number of other processes.

Today, it is known that a number of systems function in the brain, each of which can be distinguished as a separate brain that functions in collaboration with other departments. Of the known and most important systems, there are:

• Activating
• Motivational
• Cognitive

It should be noted that each system is responsible not only for its main function, but also performs a number of secondary tasks. For example, the activating part determines our consciousness, the sleep-wake cycle, and also performs cognitive functions. If a person has trouble sleeping, then the learning process or other activity cannot function at full strength.

One thing is certain, the human brain is a single organ that provides all our vital processes, mental functions, but for a more convenient description it is divided into several of the above systems (brains).

The relationship between the brain and the psyche raises many questions today. Therefore, science pays a lot of attention to this issue. This question has been asked since ancient times by such great minds as Hippocrates and Aristotle. In the 19th century, the brain regions that coordinate human speech were first identified - these are the Broca and Wernicke regions.

The discoveries of those times were still not enough to understand how our consciousness works. Gradually, various new methods of studying the human brain began to be introduced: psychological and clinical tests, electroencephalogram (), but this was still not enough. Gradually, the study of the brain moved to a new stage, its structure and functions were sufficiently well studied, but it will take more than a decade to fully understand how this miracle tool works.

The real discovery in the comprehension of brain features was completely through the use of implanted electrodes for the purpose of diagnosing and treating patients. It is at this moment that specialists begin to understand how each individual nerve cell works, how information is transmitted from one cell to another, its movement along the nerve, etc.

As a result, this made it possible to identify several zones and sections of the brain, namely the cortex, subcortex, and others. The human brain consists of more than 85 billion nerve cells, but only a few dozen electrodes can be examined, while they are located directly next to the connected sensors.

It was in the 21st century that the technological revolution began, when computational capabilities made it possible to study almost any part of the brain, its higher functions. Methods such as the EEG allowed literal insight into the brain.

Brain structure and function

The science of the human brain identifies a basic rule that can be characterized as the principle of the unity of structures and functions. The brain consists of:

• The cerebral hemispheres, which are the largest and are responsible for higher mental processes
• The diencephalon consists of two equal parts:

• The thalamus acts as a signal distributor, heading to the cortex
• The hypothalamus is the “head” of vegetative functions. Thanks to him, a person has the opportunity to grow and develop, as well as maintain body temperature, control the elimination of toxins from the body, intake of food, water and a number of other vital processes.

• Brain stem, which includes:

• Midbrain
• Medulla

Thanks to these three components, the formation of complex body functions is carried out.

• Cerebellum. Just like the brain, it consists of two hemispheres, which are connected by a "worm". The functions of the cerebellum are multifaceted, but it is especially responsible for motor coordination, regulation of balance and muscle tone.
• Spinal cord. It consists of 30 segments, and it is enclosed in the spine. One vertebra corresponds to each segment. This department performs the function of a "transmitter" that sends impulses to certain parts of the body from parts of the central nervous system. Also, his activity is the implementation of vegetative reflexes.

Methods for studying structures, its functions, and the location of the brain are constantly improving. So, modern diagnostic techniques allow you to form a clear opinion about the structure of the brain without damaging it. One of these methods is magnetic resonance imaging. This method is used to recognize, for example, tumor formations. Moreover, the method has high accuracy and the absence of negative manifestations after its application.

Nerve cell is a key element of nervous tissue

The brain is made up of many nerve cells. For example, just formed animals can have only 1 cage. However, the human brain numbers about 85 billion due to the complexity of the organization of the brain.

The key place in the cell is occupied by the nucleus, where the apparatus that generates the genetic code for the structure of the human body is located. Among other, most important brain particles, the endoplasmic reticulum is distinguished, which consists of many membranes. The second most important particle is mitochondria. Thanks to their work, the amount of ATP, the so-called "fuel" of the cell, is maintained in the nerve cell.

Two key properties of neurons are distinguished:

• Electric pulse generation (excitation)
• Conducting excitation (transmission)

The receipt of certain signals by the cell is accompanied by the transformation or suppression of the synthesis of some genes, mainly neuropeptides. These peptides are formed in the central or peripheral nervous system. The main function of peptides is to regulate the physiological functions of the human body. They include about 30-50 amino acid residues.

To date, it has been established that synthesizing consists in the formation of precursor peptides. After the conclusion of translation, neuropeptides in the brain are cleaved by proteases. The basis of precursor peptides, as a rule, is made up of several of their neural-type followers, as well as a sequence of signals that facilitate the movement of the peptide in the cytoplasm after the synthesis process has been completed on the membranes of the intracellular organoid.

One of the modeling neuropeptides is morphine and codeine, which make up the two active-forming components of morphine. The effects of morphine on the brain have been extensively studied through the synthesis of the morphine antagonist naloxone.

Examination of brain structures: stereotaxis

Stereotaxis is one of the modern ways of exploring the deep structures of the brain. This neurosurgical method of studying the neurophysiology of the human brain is the least traumatic, which makes it possible to put it in the first place and to push aside almost all "open" neurosurgical methods.

Stereotaxis allows you to effectively influence patients with diseases of the locomotor system (Parkinson's disease), epilepsy, acute pain, mental pathologies. Also, this method has proven itself in the diagnosis and treatment of tumor and cystic formations, hematomas and abscesses.

However, this method is resorted to, only in extreme necessity, namely if drug therapy does not give any effect or the patient's health and life are in danger.

There are 2 types of stereotaxis:

• Non-functional. It is carried out when in the depths of the brain there is any pathological formation, for example, a tumor. If you use the standard method of surgical removal of the tumor, then in this case the structures of the brain are affected, which thereby can cause the patient. When using a non-functional type of stereotaxis, it is possible to introduce radioactive substances, which subsequently, and the substances themselves, disintegrate. However, the method is applicable if the MRI diagnostics showed the exact localization of the tumor, that is, the doctor must accurately identify the affected area, then the possibilities of getting rid of the neoplasm are significantly increased.
• Functional. This method is more often carried out in order to treat mental pathologies. As a rule, in this case, the disease is characterized by damage to a small group of nerve cells or when the work of some groups of nerve cells is disrupted. That is, a group of cells may not synthesize the necessary substances or, conversely, exceed the proper volume produced. When cells are abnormally excited, they can stimulate abnormal activity in others. With the help of electrical stimulation, it is possible to transform nerve cells, however, while the affected area will not be visible, experts calculate the location of the affected area based on the diagnostic conclusion and the necessary tests.

To date, several hundred stereotaxic psychosurgical operations have been carried out in order to treat diseases of the nervous system, which were carried out due to the ineffectiveness of other non-surgical methods. Also, this method can be applied to people with drug addiction who did not give the desired effect.

Physiological mechanisms of sleep

The physiology of the human brain in a state of sleep is constantly monitored by scientists from various fields. The famous ancient Greek healer Hippocrates argued that sleep occurs as a result of the outflow of blood to the internal parts of the body.

To date, it has been established that sleep favorably stimulates our mood, memory, and the level of performance. Experts point out that sleep disturbance is the primary factor in mental pathology. The state of this problem has received publicity due to the introduction of new research methods, namely the method of polygraphic diagnostics ("lie detector"). Also, methods of laboratory examinations and a number of psychological ones are widely used.

Today, there are two states of sleep:

1. "Slow". This condition arises as a kind of collection of nuclei, containing serotonin nerve cells, stretching along the midline through the brain stem.

The suspension of serotonin production leads to a state of insomnia, which can only be stopped by the precursor of serotonin, hydroxytryptophan. If the nuclei are in an acute pathological state, then this leads to chronic insomnia.

1. “Rapid is a phase of sleep that is caused by increased brain activity. One of the signs is rapid eye movement. Research on this condition indicates a significant need for it. If a person refuses "REM" sleep, it can lead to serious mental disorders, namely to increased irritability, pathological state of the emotional background, hallucinations, and possible paranoid ideas.

To date, much attention has been paid to sleep research. Therefore, experts distinguish several passable stages from the state of wakefulness to sleep. These stages can be clearly seen with the help of EEG diagnostics, as well as by the current psychological state of the patient.

Night sleep is usually divided into 4 cycles, each of which begins with a phase of "slow" sleep and ends with "REM" sleep. The cycle time is approximately 70 minutes. With a decrease in the delta rhythm during the rest period, the duration of stages 3 and 4 increases. If a person refuses to sleep, then mainly the duration of the delta rhythm will increase, it sets in faster, and only on the second night a protective mechanism appears - an increase in the duration of "REM" sleep.

Grammatical perception

The ongoing research has even revealed such regulatory mechanisms as a grammatical detector. For example, "black panther" and "black panther". That is, there is a certain group of cells that impulsively informs the brain about the violation of grammar. This is carried out with the aim that the perception of meaningful speech, often comes at the expense of grammatical analysis, if there is any violation, then a signal is received about the need for additional analysis.

A number of recent studies have identified several small-sized regions responsible for various cognitive functions. There is a certain reaction to differences in the activity of neurons in the perception of a word in the native language and a slightly different reaction to a foreign word.

Deep structures are characterized by high-frequency electrical discharge, and nerve cells solve the problem in a group. The cerebral cortex is characterized by a single-faced reaction, that is, the frequency of impulses decreases in all nerve cells, and in a select few, it increases.

Thanks to PET research, it is possible to study all the brain regions that regulate higher functions. The essence of this method consists in the introduction of an isotope involved in chemical reactions inside the brain cells, after which it is observed how the distribution of this substance in the studied area of \u200b\u200bthe brain changes.

For example, if an area is characterized by an increasing influx of glucose, then this signals an increase in metabolism, which indicates an increased work of nerve cells in this brain area.

Attention mechanisms

A fairly common question is how human attention functions. Namely, the mechanism of the so-called involuntary attention began its formation several million years ago, as a security ability, which continues to function at the moment: for example, driving a car, listening to the radio, music. Attention is a kind of switch, we hear sounds, but we can suddenly switch to a different stream of sound.

If the mechanisms of involuntary attention are in a pathological state, then this indicates an ongoing disease. For example, with a childhood disease - attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The disease is characterized by the fact that the child is not able to concentrate on something, for this reason the child is often scolded, however, in this case it is necessary to treat the pathology, and not throw it off on insufficient education, since in most cases the child has certain cerebral mechanisms activities.

Until the 21st century, this phenomenon was not considered any disease and forceful methods of influence were most often used. Many treatments for attention deficit disorder are available today.

Also, in addition to the above (involuntary) attention, selective attention is distinguished. This type allows you to focus on a specific interlocutor, that is, if several people are involved in a conversation, your attention will be focused only on a specific person who is currently of interest.

For this, a kind of experiment is carried out, for example, a person is told a verse in one ear, and another person at the same moment a verse is told in the other ear. During the experiment, the reaction of certain areas of the brain is compared, depending on which ear the information is received.

Most people, when picking up the phone, put the receiver to their ear with their right hand, which means that the activity of nerve cells for a story in the right ear is significantly lower. This is because the brain is subconsciously more relaxed due to established reflexes and will often choose the right side.

Brain facts

The properties of the human brain, although they are the least studied part of the body, nevertheless, constant studies of this organ make it possible to single out a number of its features. A number of specialists are involved in brain research. Therefore, discoveries arise from various medical fields, which, in fact, devote the most time to the human brain.

Today, there are many surprising factors about the activity of the main functioning organ, which the science of the human brain deals with.

1. Maximum short-term memory abilities

In humans, there are 3 types of memory: sensory, long-term and short-term. Long-term memory works like a hard disk, that is, it accumulates and contains in the brain for a long time. Short-term memory works on the principle of small-size electronic storage. This type of memory is able to remember only 5-8 objects. That is why phone numbers are mostly 7 digits.

However, consistent training in short-term memory can improve memorability.

1. The subconscious mind is smarter than the brain

A recent brain study on a number of subjects has shown that our subconscious is smarter than we are. In one experiment, a complex image is shown. The task of the subjects was to indicate without thinking what the specialists had in mind. The main body completed the task within a few seconds. The other group was asked to think over their answer, which ultimately turned into a failure to complete the task, while it is worth noting that several hours were allotted to think about the answer.

It has been proven that the composition of the blood does not change throughout the entire active work. Blood sampling from a vein was performed from patients engaged in mental work throughout the day . As a result, experts have established that the feeling of fatigue depends on our mental and emotional state.

1. Brain stimulation as a protective function against disease

Scientists have found that regular brain activity can significantly reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease. Mental activity allows the production of additional tissue to be synthesized, thereby compensating for pathological activity. It is worth highlighting that doing something new has the most effective effect on the brain. Also, experts recommend communicating with more intelligent individuals than yourself.

1. Response to speech by gender

Voice reproduction is formed in different areas of our brain. The female voice is more musical, their sound occurs at higher frequencies, and the range is also much wider than that of men. In order to decipher the meaning of what a woman is saying, the brain needs to spend additional resources. For example, people with systematic manifestations of hallucinations often hear masculine speech, not feminine.

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This review article presents the scientific achievements of many famous scientists in the study of the human brain. The human body is a well-coordinated work of the brain with other organs and systems. Studies of human brain functions were carried out by such well-known scientists as I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, N.P. Bekhterev and many others. They investigated and demonstrated the fundamental concepts of brain function. Despite the many studies conducted, the human brain remains the most mysterious and little-known organ of science. He doesn't reveal his secrets so easily. The gray matter of the brain defines a unique, diverse inner world with memories, fantasy, emotions, and desires. With the development of modern research methods in the field of neurophysiology, the possibility of using the latest equipment, scientists have managed to reveal some of the secrets of the brain.

neurophysiology

the medicine

excitation signal

1. Bekhterev V.M. Psyche and life // Book Club of Books. - 2015. - S. 220-221.

2. Bekhtereva N. P. The magic of the brain and the labyrinths of life. - M., 2013. - P. 156–168.

3. Kobozev N.I. Research in the field of thermodynamics of information and thinking processes. - M., 1971. - S. 58–59.

4. Sechenov I.M. Reflexes of the brain. - M .: AST, 2014. - S. 70–80.

5. Medvedev S.V. Secrets of the human brain // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences - 2005. - № 6.

6. Strauk B. Secrets of the brain of an adult. Amazing talents and abilities of a person who has reached midlife. - M .: Career Press, 2011.

7. Stuar-Hamilton J., Rudkevich L.A. The psychology of aging // Peter, 2010. - pp. 155–169.

With the development of new methods in neurophysiology, the hidden capabilities of the human brain are becoming the object of scientific research. V.M. Bekhterev, N.P. Bekhterev, N.I. Kobozev and many others in their studies have proved that the physiological brain is not able to fully provide conscious and even more unconscious functions due to the low rate of transmission of electrical impulses in interneuronal synapses. It is known that in synapses impulses are delayed by 0.2-0.5 milliseconds, while human thought arises much faster.

At this stage in the development of neurophysiology, we have a good idea of \u200b\u200bhow one nerve cell works. Based on the data of scientific research of academician P.K. Anokhin, the emergence of a temporary connection during the formation of conditioned reflexes lies in the sensory-biological convergence of impulses on each cell of the cortex. The PET method makes it possible to trace which areas function during the performance of certain mental functions, but it is still not well known what happens inside these areas, in what sequence and what signals nerve cells send to each other, and how they interact with each other. On the brain map, the areas responsible for certain mental functions are identified. But between the cell and the brain region there is another, very important level - a set of nerve cells, the so-called ensemble of neurons, the functions of which are of great scientific interest.

In his work "Reflexes of the brain" I.M. Sechenov was the first to assert that mental processes are based on the reflex principle of activity. He gave affirmative evidence of the reflex nature of mental activity, that is, all experiences, thoughts, feelings, arise as a result of the impact on the body of any physiological stimulus. I.P. Pavlov created his theory of conditioned reflexes, according to which the horizontal cortical temporal connection in the formation of conditioned reflexes is based on the properties of the nerve centers - irradiation, dominant excitation of the centers of unconditioned stimuli and the beating of the path. Much research was carried out by V.M. Bekhterev, who studied the structure of the brain, associated its functions with it. He proposed a method that allows you to thoroughly study the paths of nerve fibers and cells along which the "atlas of the brain" was created. The real breakthrough in the study of the brain occurs when it is possible to come into direct contact with a brain cell. The method is the direct implantation of electrodes into the brain for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Electrodes are implanted in various parts of the brain, when irritated, its activity increases, which makes it possible to study in detail the processes taking place in it.

It was assumed that the brain is divided into clearly demarcated areas, each of which is "responsible" for its specific function. For example, this is the area responsible for bending the little finger, and this is the area responsible for love. These conclusions were based on simple observations: if a given area was damaged, then, accordingly, its function was violated.

At present, it is becoming clear that everything is not so simple: neurons within different zones interact with each other in a very complex way, and it is impossible to carry out a clear "linkage" of the function to the region of the brain everywhere in terms of ensuring higher functions, that is, one can only say that this area is related to memory, speech, emotions. It is still difficult to explain that this neural ensemble is not a piece of the brain, but a wide-spread network, and only it is responsible for the perception of letters, and the other ensemble is responsible for the perception of words and sentences. The complex work of the brain to provide higher types of mental activity is similar to a flash of fireworks: first we see a lot of lights, and then they start to go out and light up again, winking among themselves, some pieces remain dark, others flash. In the same way, the excitation signal is sent to a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe brain, but the activity of the nerve cells inside it obeys its own special rhythms, its own hierarchy. Due to these features, the destruction of some nerve cells may turn out to be an irreparable loss for the brain, while others may well replace neighboring "retrained" neurons, that is, the property of nerve centers - plasticity - is manifested. A number of neurons are ready to perform their work from birth, and there are neurons that can be "educated" in the process of development, so you can try to force them to take over the work of the lost cells.

The neurons of the subcortical deep structures of the brain solve the problem with the whole world, together. Whereas the neurons of the cortex, which solve this problem on their own, actually increase its activity, and the frequency of impulses of the neurons of deep structures decreases. Higher brain functions are provided by decoding the nerve code, that is, understanding how individual neurons are combined into structures, and the structure into a system and a complete brain.

According to scientists, a high-frequency field was identified around the brain, which differs from the general human biofield. It got its name - psycho-field. The psycho-field provides a normal high-speed course of all neurophysiological processes. It has been determined that this psycho-field is so high-energy that it needs special carriers, which are the crystals of the pineal gland. They make it possible to keep a huge energy-informational volume in the protein body without protein denaturation.

In the 60s of the 20th century, Professor of Moscow State University N.I. Kobozev, studying the phenomenon of consciousness, came to the conclusion that the material physiology of the brain does not in itself provide thinking and other mental functions. This is possible due to external sources of ultralight particles-psychones, which are the energy basis of mental and emotional impulses. Research has identified an organoid capable of capturing psychon flows. It was found that the crystals of the pineal gland are carriers of holograms, which determine the spatio-temporal deployment of all psychogenetic programs laid down at birth. A huge amount of information about various positive and negative programs of human life is stored in the crystals of the pineal gland. The forces of mental and spiritual influence on the crystals of the pineal gland determine how and what programs will be implemented by a person during his life. For many people, this process occurs unconsciously, and they cannot fully realize their energy-informational potential. And for this reason, even people of genius realize their inclinations by only 5-7 percent.

In a critical situation, when the problem must be solved immediately, an active production of psychic energy of enormous strength begins. And then a spontaneous uncontrollable psychoenergetic process of influencing the crystals of the pineal gland takes place and the program for getting out of the crisis situation is activated in them. Only the development of powerful highly spiritual energies is short-lived, and when the crisis is resolved, the greatest moments of psycho-energetic tension are forgotten. And not many people can consciously control psychic energy and solve various problems with its help.

Modern neurophysiological science pays special attention to the study of psychoenergetic processes in the brain. There are many institutes and laboratories that develop theoretical problems in this area, the development of which allows practical psychology to deal with the problems of activating the reserves of the human psyche, relying not only on empirical experience, but also on scientific data. Complex non-standard problems can be effectively solved only with the activation of development programs, in the awakening of the latent reserves of the psyche. This approach makes it possible to show the full potential of the individual and provide effective ways to realize it.

At the age of 40-70, the brain has its own characteristics. Intellectual "power" with a healthy lifestyle does not decrease with age, but only increases. The maximum manifestation of cognitive functions is in the range of 40-60 years. From the age of 50, when solving problems, a person uses not one hemisphere at the same time, as in young people, but both (cerebral ambidexterity). It is believed that in middle age, a person becomes more resistant to stress and can work more efficiently under conditions of strong emotional stress. The neurons of the brain do not die off, as it was believed, up to 30%, but connections between them may disappear if a person does not engage in serious mental work. The amount of myelin (white matter of the brain) increases with age in the brain, and reaches a maximum after 60 years, while intuition increases significantly.

The brain at 40-70 years old is usually considered not as mature, holistic and ready to work, but as being in decline and not fully coping with its functions. A number of Russian psychologists have come to the same conclusion: with age, the human brain begins to work more efficiently than in youth.

Bibliographic reference

Zhumakova T.A., Ryspekova Sh.O., Zhunistaev D.D., Churukova N.M., Isaeva A.M., Alimkul I.O. SECRETS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN // International magazine applied and fundamental research. - 2017. - No. 6-2. - S. 230-232;
URL: https://applied-research.ru/ru/article/view?id\u003d11656 (date of access: 19.09.2019). We bring to your attention the journals published by the "Academy of Natural Sciences"

Man flies into space and plunges into the depths of the sea, created digital television and super-powerful computers. However, the very mechanism of the thought process and the organ in which mental activity takes place, as well as the reasons that induce neurons to interact, still remain a mystery.

The brain is the most important organ of the human body, a material substrate for higher nervous activity. It depends on him what a person feels, does, what he thinks about. We hear not with our ears and we see not with our eyes, but with the corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex. It also produces pleasure hormones, invigorates and relieves pain. Nervous activity is based on reflexes, instincts, emotions and other mental phenomena. Scientific understanding of the brain still lags behind understanding the functioning of the whole organism as a whole. This is certainly due to the fact that the brain is a much more complex organ than any other. The brain is the most complex object in the known universe.

reference

In humans, the ratio of brain weight to body weight is on average 2%. And if the surface of this organ is smoothed out, you get about 22 square meters. meters of organic matter. The brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells (neurons). To give you an idea of \u200b\u200bthis amount, remember: 100 billion seconds is about 3 thousand years. Each neuron contacts 10,000 others. And each of them is capable of high-speed transmission of pulses coming from one cell to another by chemical means. Neurons can simultaneously interact with several other neurons, including those located in distant parts of the brain.

Only facts

• The brain is the leader in energy consumption in the body. It works for 15% of the heart and consumes about 25% of the oxygen captured by the lungs. Three large arteries work to deliver oxygen to the brain, which are designed to constantly supply it.
• About 95% of brain tissue is finally formed by the age of 17. By the end of puberty, the human brain is a full-fledged organ.
• The brain does not feel pain. There are no pain receptors in the brain: why are they, if the destruction of the brain leads to the death of the organism? The membrane that encloses our brain can feel discomfort - this is how we experience a headache.
• Men usually have larger brains than women. The average weight of the brain of an adult man is 1375 g, of an adult woman is 1275 g. They also differ in the size of various areas. However, scientists have proven that this has nothing to do with intellectual abilities, and the largest and heaviest brain (2850 g), which the researchers described, belonged to a patient in a psychiatric hospital suffering from idiocy.
• A person uses almost all the resources of his brain. The fact that the brain works at only 10% is a myth. Scientists have proven that a person uses the available brain reserves in critical situations. For example, when someone runs away from an angry dog, they might jump over a high fence that they would normally never have overcome. In an emergency moment, certain substances are poured into the brain that stimulate the actions of those who find themselves in a critical situation. In fact, this is doping. However, doing this constantly is dangerous - a person may die, because he exhausts all his reserve capabilities.
• The brain can be purposefully developed and trained. For example, it is useful to memorize texts, solve logical and mathematical problems, learn foreign languages, learn new things. Psychologists also advise right-handers to periodically use their left hand with their "main" hand, and left-handed people with their right hand.
• The brain has the property of plasticity. If one of the departments of our most important organ is affected, others after a while will be able to compensate for its lost function. It is the plasticity of the brain that plays an extremely important role in mastering new skills.
• Brain cells are regenerated. The synapses connecting neurons and the nerve cells of the most important of the organs themselves are regenerated, but not as quickly as the cells of other organs. An example of this is the rehabilitation of people after traumatic brain injury. Scientists have found that mature neurons are formed from progenitor cells in the olfactory region of the brain. At the right time, they help "fix" the injured brain. Tens of thousands of new neurons can form in its cortex every day, but subsequently no more than ten thousand can take root. Today, two areas of active growth of neurons are known: the memory zone and the zone responsible for movement.
• The brain works actively during sleep. It is important for a person to have a memory. It can be long-term and short-term. The transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory, memorization, “putting it on the shelves”, comprehension of the information that a person receives during the day, occurs in a dream. And so that the body does not repeat the movements from sleep in reality, the brain secretes a special hormone.

The brain is able to speed up its work significantly. People who have experienced life-threatening situations say that in a moment before their eyes, "the whole life flew by." Scientists believe that the brain at the moment of danger and awareness of impending death speeds up work hundreds of times: it searches in memory for similar circumstances and a way to help a person manage to save himself.

Comprehensive study

The problem of studying the human brain is one of the most exciting challenges in science. The goal is to cognize something equal in complexity to the very instrument of cognition. After all, everything that has been studied so far: the atom, the galaxy, and the animal's brain - was simpler than the human brain. From a philosophical point of view, it is not known whether the solution of this problem is possible in principle. After all, the main means of cognition are not devices or methods, they are our human brain.

There are various research methods. First of all, clinical and anatomical comparison was introduced into practice - we looked at what function “falls out” when a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe brain is damaged. Thus, the French scientist Paul Broca discovered the center of speech 150 years ago. He noticed that in all patients who cannot speak, a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe brain is affected. Electroencephalography studies the electrical properties of the brain - researchers watch how the electrical activity of different parts of the brain changes in accordance with what a person is doing.

Electrophysiologists record the electrical activity of the "thinking center" of the body using electrodes that record the discharges of individual neurons, or using electroencephalography. In severe brain diseases, thin electrodes can be implanted into the organ tissue. This made it possible to obtain important information about the mechanisms of the brain's work to ensure higher types of activity, data were obtained on the ratio of the cortex and subcortex, on compensatory capabilities. Another method of studying brain function is electrical stimulation of specific areas. So the Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield investigated the "motor homunculus". It has been shown that by stimulating certain points in the motor cortex, it is possible to induce movement of different parts of the body, and the representation of various muscles and organs has been established. In the 1970s, after the invention of computers, the opportunity arose to explore the inner world of the nerve cell even more fully; new methods of introscopy appeared: magnetoencephalography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. In recent decades, the neuroimaging method (monitoring the reaction of individual parts of the brain after the introduction of certain substances) has been actively developing.

Error detector

A very important discovery was made in 1968 - scientists discovered an error detector. This is a mechanism that enables us to perform routine actions without thinking: for example, wash, dress and at the same time think about our affairs. An error detector in such circumstances constantly monitors whether you are acting correctly. Or, for example, a person suddenly begins to feel uncomfortable - he returns home and finds that he forgot to turn off the gas. The error detector allows us not to even think about dozens of tasks and solve them “automatically”, immediately sweeping aside unacceptable options for action. Over the past decades, science has learned how many of the internal mechanisms of the human body are arranged. For example, the path along which a visual signal travels from the retina to the brain. To solve a more complex task - thinking, recognizing a signal - a large system is involved, which is distributed throughout the brain. However, the "control center" has not yet been found, and it is not even known whether it exists.

Genius brain

Since the middle of the 19th century, scientists have made attempts to study the anatomical features of the brain of people with outstanding abilities. In many medical faculties in Europe, the corresponding preparations were stored, including those of the professors of medicine who, during their lifetime, bequeathed their brains to science. Russian scientists did not lag behind them. In 1867, at the All-Russian Ethnographic Exhibition organized by the Imperial Society of Natural History Lovers, 500 skulls and preparations of their contents were presented. In 1887, the anatomist Dmitry Zernov published the results of a study of the brain of the legendary general Mikhail Skobelev. In 1908, Academician Vladimir Bekhterev and Professor Richard Weinberg investigated similar preparations of the late Dmitry Mendeleev. Similar preparations of organs of Borodin, Rubinstein, mathematician Pafnutiy Chebyshev are preserved in the anatomical museum of the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg. In 1915, neurosurgeon Boris Smirnov described in detail the brain of chemist Nikolai Zinin, pathologist Viktor Pashutin and writer Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin. In Paris, the brain of Ivan Turgenev was examined, the weight of which reached a record 2012. In Stockholm, they worked with the corresponding drugs of famous scientists, including Sophia Kovalevskaya. Experts from the Moscow Institute of the Brain thoroughly investigated the "thinking centers" of the leaders of the proletariat: Lenin and Stalin, Kirov and Kalinin, studied the convolutions of the great tenor Leonid Sobinov, writer Maxim Gorky, poet Vladimir Mayakovsky, director Sergei Eisenstein ... Today scientists are convinced that, at first glance, the brain of talented people does not stand out in any way from the average. These organs differ in structure, size, shape, but nothing depends on this. We still don't know what exactly makes a person talented. We can only assume that the brain of such people is a little “broken”. He can do what normal people cannot, which means that he is not like everyone else.