The fate of the Orthodox Church under the Golden Horde. Abstract of the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Golden Horde

20.12.2020

21.02.2008 11:53

At the end of the 15th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow involved the Horde possessions in Russia into its orbit and confirmed its status as a great Orthodox power. But before that, for more than two centuries, these lands recognized the power of the Horde khans, and thousands of Russian mosques and churches today remind of the former borders of the great Eurasian empire.

The 12th century was a period of unprecedented prosperity for Catholic Europe and a time of deep crisis for Russia. In the Orthodox Church there was a struggle for the post of metropolitan, Moscow was subjected to incessant raids and plunders. During these years of princely civil strife, the princes themselves brought nomads to Russia. So, Tokhtamysh managed to take Moscow in 1382 only after four Rurik princes, who were in the Mongol army, kissed the cross to the Muscovites, that the townspeople were only expected to pay tribute.

The Kiev metropolitans remained the heads of the clergy of all Russia and were installed on the throne by the Patriarch of Constantinople, but already in the days of the schism of the 12th century, the ruler of North-Eastern Russia, Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, sought to create his own metropolitanate. The Mongolian policy towards all religions was based on the Yasa, which not a single Chinggisid dared to violate until the liquidation of the Crimean Khanate in 1783. The Mongols did not interfere in matters of church hierarchy and court, and did not impose taxes on the clergy. Therefore, in the XIV century in the hands of the church was a third of all cultivated land in North-Eastern Russia. It was the Mongol era that gave Moscow Russia most of its most famous monasteries. It is symbolic that the Chudov Monastery (destroyed by the Soviet regime) was built on the territory of the courtyard of the Horde ambassadors in Moscow as a gesture of the Khan's goodwill.

The Mongols treated the clergy with respect and often spared them even during the storming of cities. This was the case, for example, in Suzdal. In Chernigov, the captured Bishop Porfiry was released. Remembering the Mongol campaign against Russia, one cannot but compare it with the massacre in Constantinople, which was staged in 1204 by the Catholic crusaders. And later, Pope Honorius III and Gregory IX announced a blockade of Russia, forbidding the Catholic states to trade with Russian cities. During these years, the Bulgars supplied the starving Russian cities of the Volga region with grain free of charge.

Only in the cities of Kievan and Vladimir Rus, which were under the rule of the Mongols, Orthodox churches and monasteries of the times of Kievan Rus have survived. For comparison: in Western Ukraine, in the early 1990s, Greek Catholics destroyed almost all parishes of the Orthodox Church.

The last time the memory of the role of the Tatars as defenders of Orthodoxy appeared already in the "first days of October". Thanks to a telegram from the leader of the Tatar military council, Second Lieutenant Ilyas Alkin, the Patriarchate managed to repel the first of the Bolshevik attempts to seize the Orthodox shrines of Moscow.

When describing the model of the relationship between the Orthodox Church and the Golden Horde, one cannot but recall Alexander Nevsky. Assessments of the personality and activities of this person are full of various extremes. It is rarely mentioned that Alexander Nevsky was the named son of Batu Khan before he became an Orthodox saint. Inevitably, a simple question arises: why did the Russian Orthodox Church canonize Alexander Nevsky? Formally, he always sided with the Mongols against the Christians: he rejected the proposals of the Pope, and with the army of the Mongols attacked his brother Andrew. As the chronicler testifies, in 1257 Alexander dealt with the Novgorodians, who sought to destroy the Horde tax census officials, with merciless cruelty. He "took out his eyes", while saying that people who do not see the obvious do not need eyes.

Alexander rejected Pope Innocent's offer to convert to the Catholic faith, rejected an alliance with Rome, and Daniil Galitsky agreed and received the title of "Russian King". In 1249, he began negotiations for an alliance with the Catholic Church and received the crown from the papal legate (messenger). As the prominent historian of the Russian Orthodox Church A. Kartashov wrote, Daniel "did not guess the advantages of a decisive orientation towards the Tatars and against the Latin West of the princes and the lands of the north-east." Probably, these concessions overwhelmed the patience of the Orthodox population. After a seven-year absence of the head of the church, Cyril ascended the metropolitan's throne. He became famous for supporting the unifying policy of Alexander Nevsky. Subsequent metropolitans lived in Moscow, always acted as peacekeepers and persuaded the princes to recognize the power of the approved khans, even imposing excommunication on the principality in the event of the disobedience of the appanage prince, as was the case with Nizhny Novgorod in 1365.

Metropolitan Alexander and Alexander Nevsky united in the defense of Orthodoxy. Long-term cooperation with the Horde administration has borne fruit. In 1261, Alexander, together with the Muslim Khan Berke, opened in Sarai, the capital of the Horde, a new Orthodox see called Sarskoy. The son of the great scientist and patriot Vladimir Vernadsky, historian Georgy Vernadsky wrote: "Two exploits of Alexander Nevsky - the exploit of battle in the West and the exploit of humility in the East - had a single goal: to preserve Orthodoxy as a source of moral and political strength of the Russian people." It was for this salvation of the Russian state and the Orthodox faith that Alexander Nevsky was canonized by the church.

For a more complete recreation of the picture on the issue we are studying, you should know about this. For several centuries after the official adoption of Christianity, Russia itself was a society of Christian-pagan dual faith; “Religious and ideological syncretism has taken root in ancient Russian society" from top to bottom ", covering almost all social strata ... Among the broad masses of the people ... the number of ancestors professing the faith [ie paganism] declined slowly, and at times even sharply increased. Submitting to the pressure of the church and secular authorities, the lower classes (and partly the upper classes) of society carried out the rituals and instructions introduced, mostly formally. In the last place there were changes in consciousness ”[Introduction of Christianity in Russia. M., 1987, S. 266–267].

Archaeological finds - lunar and circular-cross solar symbols, amulets and amulets, serpentines, widespread among the Slavs even in the 12th – 13th and even the 14th centuries, are vivid proof of the dual faith. and three or four hundred years after the baptism of Rus. It is impossible not to pay attention to the coincidence in the dating: pagan symbolism, judging by the data of archeology, is out of use, supplanted by the Christian, in the XIII-XIV centuries. Obviously, it is not accidental that it was the presence of Rus' in the Golden Horde that qualitatively changed the face of Russian Orthodoxy, giving an impetus to the true Christianization of the people.

Let's pay attention to two important details on the religious side of the relationship between Moscow and the Golden Horde. The establishment of the capital Sarsk diocese took place under Khan Berk, the first Muslim khan of the Golden Horde. And further: in such a conservative phenomenon as the church hierarchy, we still see traces of the significance of Sarai - to this day, one of the leading figures in the Russian Orthodox Church is the Metropolitan of Krutitsky and Kolomna (in the second half of the 15th century, the Sarai, or Sarsk, cathedra, headed by the Metropolitan of Sarsk and Podonsk, was transferred to the Krutitsy courtyard in Moscow).

Sarai's attitude to the Orthodox Church was determined by the factor of religious tolerance. The Horde khans pursued a policy of religious tolerance; the main thing for the khans was not the religion of their subjects, but their loyalty to the authorities, personal devotion to the khan, belief in the holiness of "the house of Genghis Khan." Batu "did not adhere to any of the religions and sects"; after him, in the struggle for power, two political groups clashed, one of which was guided by a single Mongol empire (shamanists and Nestorian Christians led by Batu's son Sartak), and the second dreamed of creating a state independent of Karakorum (Muslims led by Berke). Despite the fact that after Berke the Nestorians and pagans came to power, the process of strengthening the Muslims was unstoppable, and by the beginning of the XIV century they were able to put their creature on the throne - Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). Having come to power, he “killed a large number of Uighurs - lamas and wizards [ie priests of pagan cults] and proclaimed the confession of Islam ”.

The acceptance of Islam as the state religion of the Golden Horde not only did not change, but also strengthened the rights of the Orthodox Church; as one of the leading Russian Islamic scholars A.V. Malashenko, "no attempts were made to Islamize Russia [by the Horde]." Moreover, according to the remarks of the orientalist R.G. Landa, "the strengthening of Islam in the Horde was accompanied by the strengthening of Orthodoxy in Russia." Why then? Having adopted Islam, the Horde leaders consolidated the tolerance that was characteristic of their ancestors, especially since the Holy Quran singled out Christians as “people of the Book”, and even as “closest in spirit” to Muslims.

The rights of Christians and the Orthodox Church were specially stipulated by various decrees of the khans. According to these labels, the death penalty was imposed on the destruction of church property for insulting the Christian church and faith. At the time of one of the acute political crises that engulfed "post-Horde" Russia, the church leadership even "remembered" about the "justice" of the Tatars: during the atrocities of Ivan the Terrible, Metropolitan Philip, being a sincerely religious person, dared to publicly criticize the tsar with these words: How long will you shed the blood of faithful people and Christians without guilt? Tatars and pagans and the whole world can say that all peoples have laws and rights, only in Russia they are not. "

In 1313, Khan Uzbek gave the label to Metropolitan Peter. Khan recognized the possibility of a different understanding of God's providence: “May no one enter into the Church and Metropolitan, except that God's all essence; and whoever intercepts, and hears our label and our word, he is guilty of God, and will take anger from him, and from us he will be punished by death. " The khan asserted the responsibility of the metropolitan only before God, and not before the state. Confirming the former privileges indicated in the Yasa, the khan spoke about only one duty of the clergy: "Yes, with a righteous heart and right thought, he prays to God for us, and for our wives, and for our children, and for our tribe." At the same time, even those who did not fulfill these conditions had to answer only to God: "And the Priests and Deacons ... whoever teaches with a wrong heart to pray to God for us, then sin will be on him." So, in the person of the khans, at whose headquarters they spent a lot of time, the metropolitans saw an example of tsarist power.

The ideologeme of "humility" that prevailed in Russia after the Mongol invasion can be easily explained from the point of view of the prevailing worldview at that time: the sacralization of power, the inviolability of the hereditary line of power bearers, represented by the Chinggisids, established by God. And, of course, the church soon realized the full benefit of its special position in the eyes of the Horde throne, which affected its political position. After the defeat of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane in 1395, a crisis began in relations between the Horde and Russia. But another 85 years passed until the Moscow princes rejected the power of the Khan of the Great Horde. Russian history began to be rewritten, and the places of the “generous and merciful kings” were taken by “filthy enemies of the Christian faith” ... But the life of Alexander Nevsky will forever remain a true example of reasonable and mutually beneficial relations between Russia and the Horde.

As the deputy chairman of DUMER orientalist F. Asadullin writes, “up to the conquest of Kazan ... there was a strong opinion that“ the Russian state from their borders to the north and west, to the city of Moscow, not including Moscow itself ”was in the hands of the Islamized Tatar elite ... the prestige of all the Horde, including those associated with Islam, in “Tatar Muscovy” (that is how Muscovy Rus was sometimes called because of the strong positions of the Murzas and Beks) was almost absolute ”. Thus, many terms of the Russian language, denoting clothing or fabrics characteristic of that time, come from Turkic, as well as Persian and Arabic; for example velvet, caftan, sash. A vivid example of Eastern influence in this area is the spread of the traditional headdress of the Tatars - skullcaps (tafia), which became widespread among Muscovites by the middle of the 16th century. Tafia of Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich is still available for viewing - in the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral. One of the conflicts between Metropolitan Philip and Tsar Ivan the Terrible arose due to the fact that some oprichnik entered the church wearing a skullcap. Despite the opposition of the church, fashion spread more and more: by the end of the century, all boyars wore skullcaps under fur hats.

It is wrong to believe that the influence of Muslim states on Russian civilization in general and the Russian Orthodox Church in particular was limited only by the period of Rus' dependence on the Golden Horde or post-Horde khanates. Let's give the following example. In the 17th century, when Russia was already a completely independent state, by pursuing a policy of baptism of Muslims inside the country, at the international level, it maintained the reputation of a country friendly to Islam. In 1625, Persian ambassadors brought to Moscow a gift from Shah Abbas - part of the robe (tunic) of Jesus Christ. About this tunic, in which Jesus Christ was allegedly crucified, they told the following: this garment is of the type of a sleeveless robe, wide and long, which is not sewn; "Yes, even now they wear a dress in Arabia, but the word is ihram in Arap." (Ihram is the garment of a pilgrim performing the Hajj to Mecca.)

This event became so significant for the city and for the entire Russian Church that a special holiday was established in honor of it - the Position of the Robe of the Lord in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. The shah accompanied this gift with a letter, which said that he "prays for the sovereign [of the Russian] God, and he, de, shah, hopes that [Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich] will remember him in his holy prayers to God." In addition, the shah emphasized the closeness of the two religions: "and he himself, the shah, believes in Christ and in Mother Evo the Most Pure Theotokos."

***

Its own political project - "The Third Rome" - the church carefully begins to "spin" only with the weakening of the central authority in the Golden Horde. However, the final consolidation of the special, supranational status of the church, as a result of which the formation of not even the state church, but the ecclesiastical state took place, happened much later - with the coming to power of the Romanovs.

We have only scratched the surface of an extremely interesting and still not studied issue in the title. No less interesting is the subsequent evolution of the relationship between the growing Orthodoxy and Russian Muslims, primarily the Tatars. Alas, they were not accompanied by expressions of “feelings of gratitude” from the church. The church's view of Islam, which was still considered a "filthy and ungodly" heresy, has not changed either: the physical extermination and forced baptism of Muslims became not the best aspects of this relationship in a later era. Reflecting on the vicissitudes of historical destinies, one involuntarily asks the question: why did the Muslims, so persecuted and unloved in Russia, always save it from the conquerors - the Poles, the French, the Germans? Is it because from the time of Nevsky they habitually turned their gaze to where the common enemy came from - both for Islam and for Orthodoxy?

Damir KHAYRETDINOV

There are too many myths around the Golden Horde today, and especially around the history of Russia itself during the yoke period. In particular, individual publicists are trying to prove that supposedly all this time in Russia they did nothing but resist the yoke, but is this true?

In fact, the horde, which, before the split over heritage, managed to seize large territories, defeat Poland and Hungary, was not as wild as some publicists and ideologists imagine. In fact, the warriors of the horde were probably the most advanced even in technological terms, since they used the gifts of the Chinese civilization, the most progressive at that time (Western Europe was not the most developed at that time).

And what was the reaction of the Russian princes and the church? In fact, for them, or rather for some, it was beneficial. So, for example, Alexander Nevsky became a twin brother of Baty's son Sartak, and accordingly became a relative, i.e. took tribute from cities and for himself personally (and not only collected for the horde).

The benefits for Nevsky were obvious, since the Golden Horde was able to really centralize the state, establish a tax system (progressive for that period, which operated for many years after the decline of the horde), and also, by and large, give him such power that he would not have received until there was, in fact, no horde.

For the priests, this was also an ideal time, since the horde believed that since they were still the main rulers, the priests would be used precisely for the purpose of ideological influence on the population. That is why the church office in Saray-Batu opened almost immediately.

Therefore, the label was issued to the churches. In particular, there was the following situation:

"Whoever blasphemes the faith of the Russians or swear at it will not apologize in any way, but will die an evil death."

Those. The essence was quickly understood, and, it is important to note, the church had much more from such an alliance than from an alliance with the state before that, since the well-being of the church directly depended on the loyalty of a particular prince. Often the church "received less", and now on many issues the church had even more rights in Russia than the princes, and even Byzantium could no longer have such a serious influence on the matter (previously it had to give significant funds to the "elder brother").

Therefore, the church supported the yoke. This was probably the best time for the churchmen. Dmitry Timokhin, a researcher at the RAS, says about this:

“Tatars have always been an example of religious tolerance. They did not demolish churches or execute priests. What do you think the Orthodox Church gave them in return for such loyalty? ... They simply prayed for the health of the Horde Khan, as for the legitimate ruler of the Russian lands. This is now such a reciprocal "service" seems to us absurd, but for medieval people it really mattered "

Actually, of course, it can hardly be called religious tolerance that if someone in Russia is not Orthodox, they will be executed for this, but otherwise everything is correct. The invaders believed that it was the church that would be able to establish a connection with the people, and therefore they would not kill the tribute collectors, but, on the contrary, would pay tribute without question and thank God for such a wonderful power.

It is clear that, on the whole, this was a miscalculation, since it was not the church that took on the responsibilities of the defender of the horde, but, on the contrary, the horde took over the responsibilities of the protector of the church, since it was the labels from the horde that confirmed the authority of the churchmen. And it was government violence that helped establish the church.

The church refused to support the horde only when the horde fell under its own contradictions, when schisms occurred, and in general, the division of territories among the khans, when there was no time for Russia, and when in Russia they could completely refuse to pay tribute.

Despite the fact that they stopped paying tribute in the end, many innovations from the horde survived for many years, in particular the centralized state and trade relations with different countries, because it was during the horde period that trade networks from China to Iran were established. Unfortunately, the attitude towards the church remained the same, i.e. the church must be absolutely responsible for ensuring that "slaves and others" obey and obey, no matter what.

The churchmen themselves, shortly before the 1917 revolution, recalled this period with nostalgia:

“The labels affirmed the following privileges for the clergy: firstly, the Russian faith was protected from any blasphemy and insults on the part of anyone, it was strictly forbidden to steal and damage the paraphernalia of external worship; secondly, the clergy were exempted from tributes, all duties and all duties; thirdly, all church immovable estates were recognized as inviolable, and church servants, that is, slaves and slaves, were declared free from any kind of public work "(Zvonar, 1907, No. 8).

“In the Tatar, or Mongolian, period, the independent position of our church was strengthened thanks to the patronage of the Tatar khans of the Golden Horde. During this period of time, our church receives special privileges from the khans, thanks to which the clergy prosper and becomes a large capitalist figure ”(Strannik, 1912, No. 8)

In the history of the Russian state, it is difficult to find other such complex subjects as the relationship between the Golden Horde and the Orthodox Church; this issue still requires special study. It is necessary to pay attention to a number of important factors explaining the paradoxical, from the current point of view, the situation when the church achieved huge concessions from the non-Christian authorities, on the one hand, and when this authority so easily found a common language with the hierarchs of the church in the conditions of the conquest of Russian lands - with another.
At the end of the 15th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow involved the Horde possessions in Russia into its orbit and confirmed its status as a great Orthodox power. But before that, for more than two centuries, these lands recognized the power of the Horde khans, and thousands of Russian mosques and churches today remind of the former borders of the great Eurasian empire.
The 12th century was a period of unprecedented prosperity for Catholic Europe and a time of deep crisis for Russia. In the Orthodox Church there was a struggle for the post of metropolitan, Moscow was subjected to incessant raids and plunders. During these years of princely civil strife, the princes themselves brought nomads to Russia. So, Tokhtamysh managed to take Moscow in 1382 only after four Rurik princes, who were in the Mongol army, kissed the cross to Muscovites, that the townspeople were only expected to pay tribute.
Metropolitans of Kiev remained the heads of the clergy of all Rus and were installed on the throne by the Patriarch of Constantinople, but already in the days of the schism of the 12th century, the ruler of North-Eastern Russia, Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, sought to create his own metropolitanate. The Mongolian policy towards all religions was based on the Yasa, which not a single Chinggisid dared to violate until the liquidation of the Crimean Khanate in 1783. The Mongols did not interfere in matters of church hierarchy and court, and did not impose taxes on the clergy. Therefore, in the XIV century in the hands of the church was a third of all cultivated land in North-Eastern Russia. It was the Mongol era that gave Moscow Russia most of its most famous monasteries. It is symbolic that the Chudov Monastery (destroyed by the Soviet regime) was built on the territory of the courtyard of the Horde ambassadors in Moscow as a gesture of the Khan's goodwill.
The Mongols treated the clergy with respect, often spared them even during the storming of cities. This was the case, for example, in Suzdal. In Chernigov, the captured Bishop Porfiry was released. Remembering the Mongol campaign against Russia, one cannot but compare it with the massacre in Constantinople, which was staged in 1204 by the Catholic crusaders. And later, Pope Honorius III and Gregory IX announced a blockade of Russia, forbidding the Catholic states to trade with Russian cities. During these years, the Bulgars supplied the starving Russian cities of the Volga region with grain free of charge.
Only in the cities of Kievan and Vladimir Rus, which were under the rule of the Mongols, Orthodox churches and monasteries of the times of Kievan Rus have survived. For comparison: in Western Ukraine, in the early 1990s, Greek Catholics destroyed almost all parishes of the Orthodox Church. The last time the memory of the role of the Tatars as defenders of Orthodoxy manifested itself in the "first days of October". Thanks to a telegram from the leader of the Tatar military council, Second Lieutenant Ilyas Alkin, the Patriarchate managed to repel the first of the Bolsheviks' attempts to seize the Orthodox shrines of Moscow.
When describing the model of the relationship between the Orthodox Church and the Golden Horde, one cannot but recall Alexander Nevsky. The assessments of the personality and activities of this person are full of various extremes. It is rarely mentioned that Alexander Nevsky was the named son of Batu Khan before he became an Orthodox saint. Inevitably, a simple question arises: why did the Russian Orthodox Church canonize Alexander Nevsky? Formally, he always sided with the Mongols against the Christians: he rejected the proposals of the Pope, and with the army of the Mongols attacked his brother Andrew. As the chronicler testifies, in 1257 Alexander dealt with the Novgorodians, who sought to destroy the Horde tax census officials, with merciless cruelty. He "took out his eyes", while saying that people who do not see the obvious do not need eyes. Alexander rejected Pope Innocent's offer to convert to the Catholic faith, rejected an alliance with Rome, and Daniil Galitsky agreed and received the title of "Russian King". In 1249 he began negotiations for an alliance with the Catholic Church and received the crown from the papal legate (messenger). As the most prominent historian of the Russian Orthodox Church A. Kartashov wrote, Daniel "did not guess the advantages of a decisive orientation towards the Tatars and against the Latin West of the princes and the lands of the north-east." Probably, these concessions overwhelmed the patience of the Orthodox population. After the seven-year absence of the head of the church, Cyril ascended the metropolitan's throne. He became famous for his support for the unification policy of Alexander Nevsky. Subsequent metropolitans lived in Moscow, always acted as peacemakers and persuaded the princes to recognize the power of the approved khans, even imposing excommunication on the principality in the event of the disobedience of the appanage prince, as was the case with Nizhny Novgorod in 1365.
Metropolitan Alexander and Alexander Nevsky united in the defense of Orthodoxy. Long-term cooperation with the Horde administration has borne fruit. In 1261, Alexander, together with the Muslim Khan Berke, opened in Sarai, the capital of the Horde, a new Orthodox see called Sarsk. The son of the great scientist and patriot Vladimir Vernadsky, historian Georgy Vernadsky wrote: "Two exploits of Alexander Nevsky - the exploit of battle in the West and the exploit of humility in the East - had a single goal: the preservation of Orthodoxy as a source of moral and political strength of the Russian people." It was for this salvation of the Russian state and the Orthodox faith that Alexander Nevsky was canonized by the church.
For a more complete recreation of the picture on the issue we are studying, you should know about this. For several centuries after the official adoption of Christianity, Russia itself was a society of Christian-pagan dual faith; “Religious and worldview syncretism has taken root in ancient Russian society" from top to bottom ", covering practically all social strata ... Among the broad masses of the people ... the number of ancestors professing the faith [ie paganism] declined slowly, and at times even increased sharply. Submitting to the pressure of the church and secular authorities, the lower classes (and partly the upper classes) of society carried out the rituals and prescriptions introduced, mostly formally. In the last place there were changes in consciousness ”[Introduction of Christianity in Russia. M., 1987, S. 266-267]. Archaeological finds - lunar and circular-cross solar symbols, amulets and charms, serpentines, widespread among the Slavs even in the XII-XIII and even XIV centuries, i.e. and three or four hundred years after the baptism of Rus. It is impossible not to pay attention to the coincidence in the dating: pagan symbolism, judging by the data of archeology, is out of use, supplanted by the Christian, in the XIII-XIV centuries. Obviously, it is not accidental that it was the presence of Rus' in the Golden Horde that qualitatively changed the face of Russian Orthodoxy, giving impetus to the true Christianization of the people. Let's pay attention to two important details on the religious side of the relationship between Moscow and the Golden Horde. The establishment of the metropolitan Sarsk diocese took place during the reign of Khan Berk, the first Muslim khan of the Golden Horde. And further: in such a conservative phenomenon as the church hierarchy, we still see traces of the significance of Sarai - to this day, one of the leading figures in the Russian Orthodox Church is the Metropolitan of Krutitsky and Kolomna (in the second half of the 15th century, the Sarai, or Sarsk, cathedra, headed by the Metropolitan of Sarsky and Podonsky, was transferred to the Krutitsky compound in Moscow).
Sarai's attitude to the Orthodox Church was determined by the factor of religious tolerance. The Horde khans pursued a policy of religious tolerance; the main thing for the khans was not the religion of their subjects, but their loyalty to the authorities, personal devotion to the khan, belief in the sanctity of the “house of Genghis Khan”. Batu "did not adhere to any of the religions and sects"; after him, in the struggle for power, two political groups clashed, one of which was guided by a single Mongol empire (shamanists and Nestorian Christians led by Batu's son Sartak), and the second dreamed of creating a state independent of Karakorum (Muslims led by Berke). Despite the fact that after Berke the Nestorians and pagans came to power, the process of strengthening the Muslims was unstoppable, and by the beginning of the XIV century they were able to put their creature on the throne - Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). Having come to power, he “killed a large number of Uighurs - lamas and wizards [ie priests of pagan cults] and proclaimed the confession of Islam. "
The adoption of Islam as the state religion of the Golden Horde not only did not change, but also strengthened the rights of the Orthodox Church; as noted by one of the leading Russian Islamic scholars A.V. Malashenko, "no attempts were made to Islamize Russia [by the Horde]." Moreover, according to the remarks of the orientalist R.G. Landa, "the strengthening of Islam in the Horde was accompanied by the strengthening of Orthodoxy in Russia." Why is that? By adopting Islam, the Horde leaders consolidated the tolerance that was characteristic of their ancestors, especially since the Holy Quran singled out Christians as “people of the Book”, and even as “closest in spirit” to Muslims.
The rights of Christians and the Orthodox Church were specially stipulated by various decrees of the khans. According to these labels, the death penalty was imposed on the destruction of church property for insulting the Christian church and faith. At the time of one of the acute political crises that engulfed "post-Horde" Russia, the church leadership even "remembered" about the "justice" of the Tatars: during the atrocities of Ivan the Terrible, Metropolitan Philip, being a sincerely religious person, dared to publicly criticize the tsar with these words: How long will you shed the blood of faithful people and Christians without guilt? Tatars and pagans and the whole world can say that all peoples have laws and rights, only in Russia they are not. "
In 1313, Khan Uzbek gave the label to Metropolitan Peter. Khan recognized the possibility of a different understanding of God's providence: “Let no one enter into the Church and Metropolitan, except that God's all essence; and whoever intercepts, but hears our label and our word, he is guilty of God, and will take anger against himself from him, and from us he will be punished by death. " The khan asserted the responsibility of the metropolitan only before God, and not before the state. Confirming the former privileges indicated in the Yasa, the khan spoke of only one duty of the clergy: "Yes, with a righteous heart and right thought, he prays to God for us, and for our wives, and for our children, and for our tribe." At the same time, even those who did not fulfill these conditions had to answer only before God: "And the Priests and Deacons ... whoever teaches with a wrong heart to pray to God about us, then sin will be on him." So, in the person of the khans, at whose headquarters they spent a lot of time, the metropolitans saw an example of royal power.
The ideologeme of "humility" that prevailed in Russia after the Mongol invasion can be easily explained from the point of view of the prevailing worldview at that time: the sacralization of power, the inviolability of the hereditary line of power bearers, represented by the Chinggisids, established by God. And, of course, the church soon realized the full benefit of its special position in the eyes of the Horde throne, which affected its political position. After the defeat of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane in 1395, a crisis began in relations between the Horde and Russia. But another 85 years passed until the Moscow princes rejected the power of the Khan of the Great Horde. Russian history began to be rewritten, and the places of “generous and merciful kings” were taken by “filthy enemies of the Christian faith” ... But the life of Alexander Nevsky will forever remain a true example of reasonable and mutually beneficial relations between Russia and the Horde.
As the deputy chairman of DUMER orientalist F. Asadullin writes, “up to the conquest of Kazan ... there was a strong opinion that“ the Russian state from their borders to the north and west, to the city of Moscow, not including Moscow itself ”was in the hands of the Islamized Tatar elite ... the prestige of all the Horde things, including those associated with Islam, in “Tatar Muscovy” (that is how Muscovy Rus was sometimes called because of the strong positions of the Murzas and Beks) was almost absolute ”. Thus, many of the terms of the Russian language, denoting clothing or fabrics characteristic of that time, come from the Turkic, as well as Persian and Arabic languages; for example velvet, caftan, sash. A vivid example of Eastern influence in this area is the spread of the traditional headdress of the Tatars - skullcaps (tafia), which became widespread among Muscovites by the middle of the 16th century. Tafia of Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich is still available for viewing today - in the Kremlin's Cathedral of the Annunciation. One of the conflicts between Metropolitan Philip and Tsar Ivan the Terrible arose due to the fact that some oprichnik entered the church wearing a skullcap. Despite the opposition of the church, the fashion spread more and more: by the end of the century, all the boyars wore skullcaps under fur hats.
It is incorrect to believe that the influence of Muslim states on Russian civilization in general and the Russian Orthodox Church in particular was limited only by the period of Rus' dependence on the Golden Horde or post-Horde khanates. Let's give the following example. In the 17th century, when Russia was already a completely independent state, by pursuing a policy of baptizing Muslims inside the country, at the international level it maintained the reputation of a country friendly to Islam. In 1625, Persian ambassadors brought to Moscow a gift from Shah Abbas - part of the robe (tunic) of Jesus Christ. About this tunic, in which Jesus Christ was allegedly crucified, they told the following: this garment is of the type of a sleeveless robe, wide and long, which is not sewn; “Yes, even now they wear a dress in Arabia, but the word is Ihram in Arap”. (Ihram is the clothing of the pilgrim performing the Hajj to Mecca.)
This event became so significant for the city and for the entire Russian Church that a special holiday was established in honor of it - the Position of the Robe of the Lord in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. The Shah accompanied this gift with a letter, which said that he "prays for the sovereign [of the Russian] God, and he, de, shah, hopes that [Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich] will remember him in his holy prayers to God." In addition, the shah especially emphasized the closeness of the two religions: "and he himself, the shah, believes in Christ and in Mother Evo the Most Pure Theotokos."

Its own political project - "The Third Rome" - the church cautiously begins to "spin" only with the weakening of the central authority in the Golden Horde. However, the final consolidation of the special, supranational status of the church, as a result of which the formation of not even the state church, but the ecclesiastical state took place, happened much later - with the coming to power of the Romanovs.
We have only scratched the surface of an extremely interesting and still unexplored issue in the title. No less interesting is the subsequent evolution of the relationship between the growing Orthodoxy and Russian Muslims, primarily the Tatars. Alas, they were not accompanied by expressions of "feelings of gratitude" on the part of the church. The church's view of Islam, which was still considered a "filthy and ungodly" heresy, has not changed either: the physical extermination and forced baptism of Muslims became not the best aspects of this relationship in a later era. Reflecting on the vicissitudes of historical destinies, one involuntarily asks the question: why did the Muslims, so persecuted and unloved in Russia, always save it from the conquerors - the Poles, the French, the Germans? Is it because from the time of Nevsky they habitually turned their eyes to where the common enemy came from - both for Islam and for Orthodoxy?

Damir KHAYRETDINOV

And what was the reaction of the Russian princes and the church? In fact, for them, or rather for some,

it was beneficial. So, for example, Alexander Nevsky became a twin brother of Batu's son Sartak, and accordingly became a relative, i.e. took tribute from cities and for himself personally (and not only collected for the horde).

Therefore, the label was issued to the churches. In particular, there was the following situation:

"Whoever blasphemes the faith of the Russians or swear at it will not apologize in any way, but will die an evil death."

Therefore, the church supported the yoke. This was probably the best time for the churchmen. Dmitry Timokhin, a researcher at the RAS, says about this:

“Tatars have always been an example of religious tolerance. They did not demolish churches or execute clergymen. What do you think the Orthodox Church gave them in return for such loyalty? ... They simply prayed for the health of the Horde Khan, as for the legitimate ruler of the Russian lands. This is now such a response "service" seems absurd to us, but for medieval people it really mattered "

The churchmen themselves, shortly before the 1917 revolution, recalled this period with nostalgia:

Vitaly Kokorin, NewsInfo

The successor to Khan Berke, Khan Mengu-Timur, in 1267 laid the foundation for another tradition in the relationship between the Horde and the Russian Church. He first issued the first after the Batu invasion, Metropolitan Kirill II of Kiev and All Russia, a label for the management of the Russian Church. Probably, for this purpose, he undertook a trip to the Horde, since such an act required the personal presence of the Metropolitan in the Horde. Since the Mongols did not encroach on the rights of the Orthodox clergy, the appearance of labels was not a constituent measure, but a protective one, in order to save the clergy from the encroachments of the khan's officials who abused their powers. The first label was as follows: "Those who see and hear this letter from the priests and chernets neither tribute, nor anything else they want, nor will the Basques, princes, scribes, clerks, customs officers, but they will not apologize and die according to greatness." The label protected lands, waters, gardens, vegetable gardens, mills belonging to the clergy. Mengu-Timur also wrote in that letter: “We have granted priests and monks and all poor people, but with a right heart they pray to God for us, and for our tribe without sorrow, they bless us ...; let not they curse us ... If anyone has an unjust heart to pray to God for us, otherwise that sin will be on him. " Apparently, with this decree, the khan, on pain of execution, prohibited desecration of the Church and the Orthodox clergy. Also, complete freedom was given regarding the selection of candidates from among the laity for spiritual service. Mengu-Timur wrote in the label: “if (the metropolitan) delights in accepting other people who want to pray to God, it will be at his will”. Mengu-Timur himself was a pagan and re-established shamanism in the Horde as the state religion.

The successor of Metropolitan Cyril II, who served at the Primate See in the most difficult times of Mongol rule, was Metropolitan Maxim (1283 - 1305), a Greek by birth, elected and ordained in Constantinople. Arriving in Russia, he immediately went to the Horde. Then a custom began to take shape, according to which all our metropolitans and bishops had to travel to the Horde in order to receive approval from the khan for the pulpit and label, or, in extreme cases, sent their ambassadors there for this purpose.

As you can see, the Golden Horde khans in the 13th - 14th centuries placed the Russian metropolitans and the Russian Orthodox Church in a special position. Labels were issued to both metropolitans and princes, which actually made them equal. But the metropolitans had the right to freely communicate with Constantinople, which was not allowed to the princes. The khans placed spiritual power above secular power. The Church became an independent political force in Russian society. According to some historians, the Mongols patronized the Russian Orthodox Church for the sake of the submissiveness and patience of the people.

But the inviolability of the Church, guaranteed by labels, applied only to periods of tranquility. Making predatory campaigns, the troops of the Tatars destroyed churches and monasteries. In the chronicle story about the devastation of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382, for example, many killed clergymen are listed.

In the same period, the significance of various regions of Russia changed significantly. Kiev in its political significance fell completely. New centers are being formed. Initially, there was a rivalry for primacy between the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities.

In 1299, Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia Maxim decided to move from Kiev, completely ruined by the Tatars, to Vladimir. The choice of the Metropolitan was probably dictated by the adherence of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes to Orthodoxy, as opposed to the Pro-Latin adventures of the Galician princes. The saint correctly saw the peculiarities of the political situation in Russia, having made his choice in favor of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, and not the Galicia-Volyn principality, whose fate had already been predetermined by the destructive policy of his princes. In addition, the decision of Metropolitan Maxim was due to the fact that Kiev was once again subjected to defeat by the Mongols. Under the year 1300, the Laurentian and Nikon Chronicles report: “... Metropolitan Maxim, not tolerating the Tatar violence, leaving Kiev and the runaway to the Metropolitan, and all Kiev fled; and the Metropolitan is going to Bryansk, and then going to the Suzhdal land, and with all his life and with a wing. "

By transferring the church capital from Kiev to Vladimir, the Greek Metropolitan rendered an invaluable service to both the Russian Church and the state. In electing Vladimir, Saint Maximus thereby gave a blessing to the great princes of Vladimir for the gathering of Russian lands. And throughout the entire "Mongol" period, the Church, displaying outward submission to the Kipchak khans, undoubtedly strove to assist the "gathering of Rus". The efforts of the Church to strengthen its position, thanks to the patronage of the khans, coincided with the desire to create a unified Russian state, at the same time keeping the people from direct resistance to the Horde, doomed to failure. The Church pursued all-Russian interests and was never the executor of the will of the Golden Horde khans.

CHRISTIANITY IN THE GOLDEN HORDE

In the first period, Rus had hope for the Christianization of the Horde. The Orthodox faith undoubtedly gained followers among the Horde. The khan allowed the Sarai bishops to convert their Asian subjects to Christianity. In the cities of the Golden Horde, there were Orthodox churches, chapels and monasteries. Russian princes, boyars, merchants, artisans lived in the uluses, and the nobles and merchants of the Horde in Moscow and other cities of Russia.

In 1269, Bishop Mitrofan of Sarai "left his Bishopric of Sarskaya, and sent his signature with his own hand to the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia ... and tonsured into the schema." Bishop Mitrofan was replaced by Bishop Theognost. At the same time, the “lying churches along the Don” were added to the Sarai diocese. The saint of Sarai began to be called Sarsk and Podonsk, since his area stretched from the Asiatic limits along the Khopr and along the Don.

Three times Bishop Theognost traveled to Constantinople where he was highly respected as the most learned Sarai archpastor. Moreover, the second time, in 1279, he traveled not only for church affairs, but also on behalf of Khan Mengu-Timur as the khan's ambassador to Emperor Mikhail Paleolog, father-in-law Nogayev. This is evidenced by the surviving chronicle message: "Bishop Theognost in the winter of 1279" returned from the Greek, sent by the Metropolitan [Cyril] to the Patriarch and Tsar Mengutemer to Tsar Michael. "

It is known that Bishop Theognost, on the instructions of Metropolitan Kirill, submitted questions regarding the rules of church service to the Patriarchal Synod in Constantinople on August 12, 1276. Most of the questions posed by Bishop Theognost were caused by the new conditions of service of the Russian clergy, in which they found themselves in the Horde. Particularly interesting are the following questions from Bishop Theognost: “How should Nestorians be baptized? Can a "consecrated Meal" be transferred from place to place and used in worship? The council answered in the affirmative with the addition: "Walking people (ie nomads) have no resting place for themselves." The question of the Tatars who wished to receive Holy Baptism was also discussed: "Those who come from the Tatars to be baptized and there will not be a great deal of court, what should they immerse them in?" For this, the cathedral gave the blessing to baptize with sand for lack of water.

Hence, we can conclude that the Sarai bishop nourished not only the Russians and Greeks who had settled by that time on the territory of the Golden Horde, but also the nomadic Horde themselves who accepted the holy faith. A significant number of the Turkic-Tatar population of the Horde lands, including a considerable number of representatives of the Horde elite, converted to Orthodoxy. There are several known cases of conversion to Christianity of persons even from the khan's and princely families, as well as the khan's nobles, murzas and other eminent Tatars.

The first example of conversion to the holy faith from among the persons of the khan's families is Saint Peter, Tsarevich of Horde. He was the nephew of Khan Berke, and was constantly with him. When Bishop Kirill of Rostov came to the khan for the first time to intercede for his diocese and, at Berke's request, spoke about the enlightenment of Rostov by Saint Leontius, about the miracles performed from his relics, and together he offered various Christian teachings, this young man, who heard the words of the saint, was moved by his soul. He began to reflect on the vanity of the Mongol gods and to seek the true God. The next trip was soon made by Bishop Kirill of Rostov at the invitation of Khan Berke himself. Although he was the first of the khans of the Golden Horde to convert to Islam, he summoned Right Reverend Cyril to heal his sick son. The bishop was able to heal his son Berke with his prayer, for which the khan ordered to give an annual tax for the “house of the Most Holy Theotokos”. At the same time, the khan's nephew decided to secretly run away from his relatives. Together with Bishop Kirill, the tsarevich arrived in Rostov, where he asked for baptism. Vladyka baptized him (about 1267), calling him Peter. Tsarevich Peter built a church and a monastery in the name of the holy apostles Peter and Paul at Lake Nero. He married the daughter of a Horde nobleman who lived in Rostov (and this prince “had come to faith before), had children and died in extreme old age, pleasing God with his virtuous life. Before his death, he took a monastic form and was canonized in 1549.

Subsequently, many other noble Horde people adopted the holy faith: Prince Beklemish, the son of Prince Bakhmet, was baptized in Meshchera with many other Horde people, received the name Michael and built a church in the name of the Transfiguration of the Lord. He became the ancestor of the Meshchersky princes. Tsarevich Burka, who came in 1301 from the Great Horde and was baptized in Moscow by Metropolitan Peter with the name Ioanniky, was the ancestor of the Anichkovs. Tsarevich Aredich, who was baptized in what year is unknown, is the ancestor of the Beleutovs. Chet-Murza, who came from the Horde in 1330 to the Grand Duke Ioann Danilovich Kalita and was named in baptism Zakhariy - the ancestor of the Saburovs and Godunovs, became the founder of the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery. He founded the monastery on the place where the Mother of God appeared to him with the forthcoming saints, one of whom was Saint Hypatius of Gangres. After this apparition, Zechariah received healing from his illness. Tsarevich Serkiz, who left the Great Horde to the Grand Duke Dimitri Donskoy and was baptized together with his son Andrei, is the founder of the Starkov family. The grandson of the temnik Mamai, Prince Alex, was baptized in Kiev together with his son John from the Metropolitan himself, named Alexander - the ancestor of the Glinsky princes.

It is widely known that the anti-Horde indignation in Vladimir under Prince Andrei Yaroslavich was suppressed by the temnik Nevryuy. In 1296, "there was a scolding by the Russian prince", "at that time there was an ambassador from the Horde, Alex Nevryuy" - he was already an Orthodox Christian. The great Baskak of Vladimir under the first three Golden Horde khans and under the three Grand Dukes of Vladimir was a certain Amirkhan. His Orthodox name is Zachari, it is known that he was the godson of Alexander Nevsky himself. The great-great-grandson of Zakhar-Amirkhan was the Monk Paphnutius Borovsky (the iconography of the Monk Paphnutius retains Asian features). The noble families of the Baskakovs and the Zubovs originated from the brother of the Monk Paphnutius.

Marriages between Russians and Horde people were very common. Especially, in order to ensure the support and favor of the khan, Russian princes married noble Horde women. The Horde women adopted Christianity when they married Russian princes. Already in 1257, Prince Gleb Vasilkovich Rostovsky married the Great Khan in Mongolia. The daughter of Khan Mengu-Timur in 1279 married the holy prince Theodore Rostislavich of Yaroslavl and Smolensk. The bride received holy baptism with the name Anna. After several years of living together in the Horde, at their parents' house, the couple moved to Yaroslavl. There, Anna built a church in the name of the Archangel Michael and other churches, often visited the monastery of the Holy Savior, loved to read Divine books and generally cared more than anything about a pious life. In 1302, Prince Konstantin Borisovich married the Horde. There is no doubt that the spouses of the other Russian princes who married in the Horde were Christians. It should be noted that Alexander Nevsky himself on the maternal side was the grandson of Khan Konchak.

Among other Tatars, noble and ignoble, who adopted the holy faith in Russia, the former Ustyug Baskak, the hero Baguy (aka Buga), is known. In 1262, when the Tatars carried out a general census and established a new system of taxes - the poll tax, then in many cities the people's veche became agitated and killed the census and Baskaks. Baguy, having learned that the inhabitants of Ustyug wanted to kill him too, expressed his intention to be baptized and was named John in holy baptism. Then all the popular unrest against him subsided, his grievances and oppression were forgotten. Subsequently, John was distinguished by special piety and virtues, which earned him the love and respect of the people. John built a monastery on Sokolnichya Hill, where he used to amuse himself with hunting, and built a church in the name of his angel - St. John the Baptist. They are also known: the Horde Kochev, who came to the Grand Duke Dimitri Ioannovich Donskoy, baptized Onesiphorus, the founder of the Polivanovs. Murza, who came to the same prince from the Great Horde, baptized Spiridon, the founder of the Stroganovs. Olbuga, who was an ambassador to the same prince and was baptized, the ancestor of the Myachkovs. Murza Salakhmir, baptized John, who arrived at the Ryazan prince Oleg and married his sister Anastasia. The Horde Kichibey, baptized Selivan, who arrived at the Ryazan prince Feodor Olgovich, the founder of the Kichibeevs. From the baptized Horde, there are lines of noble families and the Russian national elite of Horde origin: the Aksakovs, Alyabyevs, Akhmatovs, Berdyaevs, Bibikovs, Bulgakovs, Bunins, Gogols, Gorchakovs, Karamazovs, Karamzins, Milievskys, Korsakovs, Mutuzovschikhs, Rutuzovisks Saburovs, Saltykovs, Stroganovs, Suvorovs, Timiryazevs, Tretyakovs, Turgenevs, Turchaninovs, Tyutchevs, Shirinsky, Shakhmatovs, Sheremetevs, Uvarovs, Urusovs, Ushakovs, Yusupovs, and many others - these are all Tatar surnames that have adopted Christianity.

The higher spiritual and cultural level of the Russian people contributed to the gradual assimilation of the Tatars. Moreover, the adoption of Christianity had, as a result, not only the transition to the service of the Russian princes, but also Russification. That is why the concepts of "Christianity" and "Rus" were identified at that time. In general, Russian chroniclers of the "Mongol" period mention only two peoples - "Christians" and "filthy". The Russian people fervently asked God to enable the unbelievers to learn the light of Truth: "Turn, O Lord, the rotten to the peasantry," they prayed, "and there will be our brothers who have received holy baptism and may there be one flock and one Patyr!" That is, for Russia from the earliest times it was alien to distinguish people by ethnicity. The division has always been based on a religious and cultural outlook. Changing faith and adapting to a new culture, yesterday's Tatar became a completely Russian person.

But, despite the adoption of Christianity by part of the Horde elite, the Christian mission in the Horde was not crowned with complete success. The Horde converted to Islam in the 14th century. Russia lost the missionary competition with Muslims, despite the fact that in the 13th century there were immeasurably more Christians in the Horde than Muslims. The reason for this was the obvious weakness of the Russian people, the decline of the national spirit, its disunity, and the violation of intra-ethnic solidarity. Or maybe it was not possible to baptize the Horde because Alexander Yaroslavich died too early? But if Russia could win the competition with Islam, and the Horde would become Orthodox, this victory, I think, would be much more significant than the victory on the Kulikovo field.

Krutitsy Compound of the Sarai Diocese

The next after Metropolitan Maximus the Primate of the Russian Church was Saint Peter, (1308-1326), who was appointed Metropolitan in 1308. A very important historical stage is associated with the personality of this holy First Hierarch - the beginning of the Moscow period. Greeted with hostility in Vladimir, and having undergone slander from Bishop Andrei of Tver, he, acquitted by the Council of 1311, forgave his slanderer. But due to new intrigues and the hostile attitude of Prince Mikhail of Tverskoy to him, the Primate did not feel very comfortable in the capital and cathedral Vladimir and was looking for an ally among other princes. He found it in the person of the Moscow princely house. Therefore, Saint Peter often lived for a long time in Moscow, which belonged to his metropolitan district, and from 1322 the Metropolitan began to live in Moscow practically without a break.

During this period, there is a struggle for primacy between Moscow and Tver. And one cannot fail to see in the address of St. Peter to Moscow the Providence of God about this city, which will soon become the new spiritual and political capital of Russia.

At the same time, the Bishops of Sarai often had to visit Russian cities, including Moscow. To accommodate the bishop and his numerous retinue in the capital of the Moscow principality, the Sarai bishop needed to have his own courtyard.

In the distant past, the people circulated "The Legend of the Conception of the Reigning City of Moscow and the Krutitsa Episcopate," which spoke of the area of \u200b\u200bKrutitsa, on which Saint Prince Daniel of Moscow originally decided to set up his court. But the hermit who lived in that place dissuaded the prince from this, predicting that there would be a temple and a monastery on Krutitsy, which later came true.

At that time, Bishop Barlaam came from Greece to Moscow and brought with him, for consecration to the churches, many parts of the incorruptible bodies of the saints of God. Grand Duke Daniel ordered him to consecrate in 1272 a church in the name of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul on the mountains near the Moscow River. According to the steepness of the places, he called the mountains Krutitsky, and Varlaam the Lord of Krutitsky. And, probably, after the death of Bishop Barlaam, Saint Daniel of Moscow, realizing the spiritual and state significance of the Sarsk and Podonsk dioceses, presented a place on Krutitsy to the bishops of Sarai. This is how the Krutitsky Monastery, known as the Krutitsky Compound of the Sarsk and Podonsk Dioceses, arose. Here the Bishops of Sarai stayed when visiting the All-Russian Metropolitans and Grand Dukes of Moscow.

It is not surprising that the courtyard arose precisely on Krutitsy - near the water (Moscow River) and land (Nikolo-Ugreshskaya road) highways. Heading to the Horde, the Moscow princes often began their journey along the Nikolo-Ugreshskaya road.

Subsequent Russian princes also did not forget the Krutitskoe courtyard with their favors. Received in 1354 the label for the great reign, John Ioannovich (Red) in his spiritual letter bequeathed a significant contribution "to the Holy Mother of God on Krutitsy, in his memory." The holy noble prince Dimitri Donskoy repeated a similar order in his spiritual charter of 1371. There is an assumption that the Grand Duke John II was even the teacher of the courtyard and the founder of the Dormition Church on Krutitsy.

Sarai bishops continued to live in Sarai the Great until the 15th century - until the time when the church-political importance of Sarai fell along with the weakening of the Golden Horde. Under Metropolitan Jonah, after the Russian Church acquired autocephaly, Bishop Vassian of Sarai in 1454 moved from the disintegrating Horde to live in Moscow's Krutitsy. He had a permanent stay in the Krutitsky monastery in Moscow and his cathedral was a church in the name of the holy apostles Peter and Paul, arranged by Bishop Vassian. This temple was the predecessor of the currently existing cathedral church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, erected in the years 1665-1689. Thus, the department of the Sarai bishops was established in Krutitsy. Out of respect for antiquity, the Krutitsky rulers were still called Sarsk and Podonsk.

KRUTITSKAYA CHAIR

Having settled in the Krutitsky monastery, the bishops of Sarsk and Podonsk no longer ruled the former diocese, but became the closest assistants of the All-Russian metropolitans.

In connection with the constant stay in the capital, the Sarsk and Podonsk rulers learned some of the peculiarities or prerogatives of honor and power: so, from a year on, the advantage of replacing the vacant Primate's cathedra during her widowhood was granted by the cathedral rules to the Sarai ruler. This decision was made at the Stoglav Cathedral, in which Bishop Sarsky and Podonsky Sava took part. At this council, a decision was also made on the church court and it was agreed that in the event of an illness of the Moscow Metropolitan, his judicial functions would be performed by Vladyka of Sarsky and Podonsky.

Surprising is the fact that Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow with Bishop Savva of Sarsk and Podonsk in 1550 blessed the beginning of a campaign of conquest against the former patrons of the Sarai bishops: “The Tsar and the Great Prince Ivan Vasilyevich came to Volodymer, and the Metropolitan blessed the zemstvo deeds and the intercessors for the oaths of Kazants. And in 1552, Bishop Savva of Sarai was among the bishops who met the Tsar in the village of Taininskoye, who was returning to Moscow after the capture of Kazan, "bearing the blessing of His Grace, Father Macarius Metropolitan." And on Sunday, January 8, 1553, Bishop Savva was baptized in the Chudov Monastery of the Kazan Tsarevich Utemish-Girey, named in Holy Baptism Alexander (+ 1566), who was baptized by Metropolitan Macarius. On February 26 of the same year, on the second week of Great Lent, in the presence of the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, the holy Cathedral and many boyars, Bishop Savva baptized the Kazan Tsar Ediger-Magmet, who was named Simeon in Holy Baptism. In 1554, on October 5, Bishop Savva married Tsarevich Simeon of Kazan with A. Kutuzov's daughter Maria.

In 1589, when the Patriarchate was established in the Russian Orthodox Church, the previous advantages were conciliarly confirmed for the Sarai bishops, and at the Council it was determined: "The Metropolitan should be near the reigning city, Moscow on Krutitsy." As a result of this determination, the bishop of Sarsk and Podonsk Gelasiy, who was at that time head of the cathedra, was elevated to the rank of metropolitan. The Metropolitan of Sarsk and Podonsk went to Moscow every Sunday to serve with the Patriarch, and during the illness of the Primate he replaced him. Upon the death of the patriarch (up to the election of a new Primate of the Church), the Krutitsky hierarchs became locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, and the “patriarchal region,” that is, the city of Moscow, passed under their control. During the period of his tenure, the Krutitsky Bishop held a patriarchal place during divine services and even had a procession "on a donkey" around the city on Palm Sunday. "

The events that took place in Moscow in 1612 and determined the fate of Russia are connected with the Krutitsky courtyard. The second people's militia, led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and a citizen of Nizhny Novgorod, Kozma Minin, came to Krutitsy in July 1612. At that time, Krutitsky Cathedral became the central temple of the capital and all of Russia, since the main Russian shrine, the Kremlin Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God, was in the hands of the Polish invaders. After serving a prayer service in the Dormition Cathedral of the Krutichky courtyard, the militia kissed the cross and vowed to free Moscow from foreigners. In August 1612, the Polish army was defeated.

The last bishop with the title of Sarsky and Podonsky was Archbishop Leonid, after which, in a year, His Grace Platon (Malinovsky) was made Bishop of Krutitsky. Thus, the Krutitsky Metropolitanate was established, which has a vast territory with the residence of the Metropolitan in the Krutitsky Monastery.

The former name of the bishop's title "Sarsky and Podonsky" out of respect for antiquity and according to the customs that existed in some monasteries was transferred to the topography of the Krutitsky tract (Sara river, Podon stream). And to this day, the current name of Sarynsky passage reminds of them.

Metropolitan Krutitsky became the first assistant to the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, as before that the Bishop of Sarsky and Podonsky was the closest assistant to the Metropolitans of All Russia. The Krutitsa Metropolitans became the first in importance and influence on all-Russian affairs after the Patriarch and often represented him.

The Krutitsa Metropolitan, the vicar of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, is a reminder of an unfulfilled historical opportunity - the Patriarch of Sarai, for whom the saint of Moscow would, on the contrary, become a vicar. And the Krutitskaya cathedra remains an ancient symbol of the unity of Russia with the East.

KHAN UZBEK

But back to the history of the Golden Horde. Its huge territory, large population, strong central government, combat-ready army, skillful use of trade caravan routes, collection of tribute from the conquered peoples - all this created the power of the Horde empire. It grew stronger and stronger and in the first half of the XIV century experienced the peak of its power.

With the ascension in 1313 to the Golden Horde throne of Khan Uzbek, the first attempts were made to establish Islam in the Horde as the state religion. However, the very coming to power of the young prince Uzbek was prepared by those circles of the Chinggisites and the Turkic-Mongol nomadic aristocracy who stood for the Islamization and centralization of the state. Moreover, the word was taken from the prince Uzbek that if he came to the throne, he would accept Islam and would strictly adhere to its instructions. The Uzbek Khan fully justified these hopes. Having ascended the throne, he accepted Mohammedanism and "proclaimed the confession of Islam." “Tsar Ozbyak became fertile,” noted Russian chroniclers.

But not all Horde people were in a hurry to obey Uzbek's decree and convert to Islam. Some part of the Horde population was told to the khan: “You expect obedience and obedience from us, but what do you care about our faith and confession? And how do we leave the law and the jass of Genghis Khan and go over to the faith of the Arabs? " In response, Uzbek killed a large number of shamans and Buddhist lamas. Despite the harsh measures, the large and diverse population of the Golden Horde continued to profess various religions. Only the ruling elite and the urban population were mainly committed to Islam in the Golden Horde.

But despite the fact that Uzbek, with the help of the "Inquisition", established Islam among the pagans, he did not put any obstacles to the transition of the Mongol-Tatars to Orthodoxy. In many Golden Horde cities, mosques were still adjacent to Orthodox churches.

The adoption of Islam also did not prevent Uzbek from continuing the tradition of his predecessor Tokhta (he was married to the daughter of the Greek emperor Andronicus the Elder) and married the daughter of the emperor Andronicus the Younger. And his sister Konchaku, who was baptized with the name Agathia, in 1317 to marry the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich.

With the adoption of Islam by the Horde, many Christian Mongols emigrated to Russia, entering the service in the Russian principalities. And in subsequent years, there were often cases of the Horde's conversion to Orthodoxy. Thus, in 1393, Saint Metropolitan Cyprian solemnly baptized in the presence of the Grand Duke and court in Moscow the river three noble Murzas - Bakhtyy, Khidyr and Mamatya, giving them the names of three holy youths - Ananias, Azaria and Misail. Such facts indicate that the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde throughout their relationship was limited to the political sphere and did not extend to the religious sphere.

Moreover, the official recognition of Islam in Sarai not only did not weaken the Russian Church, but, on the contrary, strengthened it. In 1313, the Primate of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Peter, together with the Grand Duke of Vladimir Mikhail Yaroslavich, went to the new Khan Uzbek and received a label confirming all the rights of the Russian Church. Moreover, according to the Nikon Chronicle, St. Peter "in the Horde was in honor of the king and was released from the king with much honor." Khan Uzbek confirmed the freedom of all church people from the state tax: “Is there a tribute to us,” says the Uzbek label of Met. Peter, - or whatever else, wake up: whether it is tamga, whether it is tamga, whether it’s a hole, or whether it’s washed ... but let no one collect the Metropolitan from the cathedral church and from Peter, and from their people and from all his clergy. " Moreover, Uzbek expanded the privileges of the Church: “All the ranks of the Orthodox Church and all monks are subject only to the judgment of the Orthodox Metropolitan, by no means the officials of the Horde and not the princely court. Those who rob a cleric must pay him three times. Whoever dares to mock the Orthodox faith or offend a church, monastery, chapel - he is subject to death, regardless of whether he is Russian or Mongol. May the Russian clergy feel like free servants of God. " And Khan Uzbek also said: “We favor them with labels, but God will grant us, intercede; but we save God and do not take what is given to God ...; may the metropolitan abide in a quiet and meek life ... may with a righteous heart and right thought prays to God for us, and for our wives and for our children, and for our tribe. "

By 1330, when Bishop John was installed in Sarai, the following record relates: "Tsar Azbek of Orda granted the Lord of Sarai, give him everything at his request, and no one will offend him in any way."

Uzbek firmly held power in his hands and brutally suppressed any separatist demonstrations on the outskirts. Crimea and the Volga region, Khorezm and the Kyrgyz steppe obeyed him unquestioningly. The reign of Uzbek became the time of the highest power of the Golden Horde. The era of the Uzbek Khan was marked by a cultural upsurge and extensive urban construction. By the middle of the XIV century, more than 100 cities existed in the Golden Horde. Many of them were founded by the Horde. These include the capitals of the Golden Horde - Sarai and the new Sarai in the Lower Volga region, Saraichik and Western Kazakhstan, where the khans were buried. Under Uzbek and his son Janibek, the Golden Horde cities flourished. Palaces, mosques, loafs, rich quarters of the nobility and merchants, and increasingly populous settlements of artisans, erected by the efforts of hundreds of thousands of slaves, turned them into the focus of economic and cultural life. The Arab traveler Ibn Batutta, who visited Saray-Berke in 1333-1334 during the reign of Uzbek Khan, wrote: streets. Different peoples live in it, such as: the Mongols are the real inhabitants of the country and its rulers: some of them are Muslims; Ases [Bulgars] who are Muslims, Kipchaks, Circassians, Russians and Byzantines who are Christians. Each nation lives in its own area separately: their bazaars are also there ”. In Sarai, by the time of Uzbek, coins were minted with the image of a two-headed eagle and, probably, the Virgin (a woman with a baby). The Christian population got along with the Muslim in cities, had their own cemeteries and churches.

Under Uzbek, discord between the Russian princes intensified, and Uzbek encouraged and provoked these feuds and intrigues. At the same time, the rise of Moscow began, which Uzbek supported in the fight against Tver. In one of the battles, the Tver prince Mikhail Alexandrovich defeated the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich and captured Agafia, the sister of Uzbek. Once captured by the prince of Tver, Agafia died. A rumor was immediately spread about her special poisoning. On the denunciation of Yuri Danilovich, Saint Prince Mikhail of Tverskoy was executed. Russian chronicles report that in the Golden Horde there was a city of Bezdezh, the Christian population of which met the coffin of the murdered Prince Mikhail of Tverskoy.

The Uzbek Khan, continuing the traditional Horde policy towards the West, restrained his onslaught on the Russian lands. In 1324, Uzbek managed to organize a campaign of Russian princes against Lithuania and prevent the Grand Duke of the Lithuanian pagan Gediminas from accepting Catholicism. Under Uzbek, the last major campaign to Eastern Europe took place. In 1329, the Pope of Rome appealed to all Western European rulers to organize a crusade against the Tatars. But Uzbek defeated the combined army of Poland and Hungary. In 1340, when the Polish king Casimir invaded Galicia, plotting to subjugate the entire country to the Roman Church, Uzbek helped the Russian princes in their struggle against Casimir. As a result of this struggle, Casimir was forced to allow the Orthodox to freely perform divine services in Galician Rus, which he had captured.

But, despite the loyalty of the Uzbek in relation to Orthodoxy, with the adoption of Islam, the final line was laid between the Golden Horde and Russia. This choice predetermined the Kulikovo field and the further fragmentation of the Kipchak kingdom into many uluses. But if we imagine that Uzbek Khan would have introduced not Islam, but Orthodoxy as the state religion, then further historical processes in the Horde would develop in a different direction, and then there would be no Kulikovo battle at all. But there would be no Moscow state either. What would happen in this case? Perhaps there would have been an allied unification of Russia and the Horde into a gigantic Orthodox Empire. Then, probably, not Moscow, but Sarai would have turned out to be the spiritual and cultural center of the Russian land. And the Metropolitanate of All Russia, having lost its Kiev roots, would have finally strengthened not in Moscow, but in Sarai.

MOSCOW - THE CENTER OF ALL RUSSIA

During the reign of Uzbek, the Moscow princes gained great strength. After a hundred years of Tatar rule, in spite of the Tatar policy in Russia, the process of unification around the Moscow principality began.

A special role in the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow belongs to the Grand Duke Ioann Daniilovich Kalita (1328 - 1340). It is to this prince that an important merit is attributed - he sought permission to deliver the "exit" to the Horde on his own, without the participation of Tatar tribute collectors. This action destroyed the main reason for the entry of the Tatars into the Russian lands. While other principalities suffered from Tatar invasions, the possessions of the Prince of Moscow remained calm and filled with residents. According to the chronicler, “... the filthy people stopped fighting the Russian land, they stopped killing Christians; Christians rested and rested from the great languor and many burdens and from the Tatar violence; and from that time on there was silence throughout the earth. " The main means to achieving peace was the special ability of John I to get along with Khan Uzbek. He often traveled to the Horde and earned the Khan's favor and trust.

After a long period of time, John Kalita became the first authoritative prince, whose influence spread to the whole of North-Eastern Russia. He began to consider himself not only Moscow, but also the Grand Duke of "All Russia". Ioann Kalita independently ruled in Tver, conquered by him, in Novgorod, in weak Rostov, and even distant Pskov experienced his power on himself. The possessions of the Moscow prince began to move noticeably to the Far North. Under John Daniilovich and under his two sons Simeon Gord (1341-1353) and John the Red (1353-1359), who, like their father, were the great princes of all Russia, Moscow decisively prevailed over other principalities ... The first successes of the Moscow princes aroused the sympathy of the boyars towards Moscow. Already Simeon the Proud, according to the chronicler, "all the Russian princes were given under the arm."

Relying on their strength and wealth, with support in the Horde, the Moscow princes were a real force capable of maintaining order and silence not only in their lot, but throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal region. By the beginning of the reign of Prince Dimitry Donskoy (1359), Moscow had actually united most of the Russian principalities under its rule. This was so important and desirable for the people, exhausted by the Tatars and internal troubles, that they willingly went under the auspices of Moscow and provided assistance to the Moscow princes. The people settled on the Moscow lands, and the Moscow princes built cities, settlements, villages for them. They bought entire estates from the impoverished Yaroslavl, Belozersk, Rostov princes and simple villages from small owners, redeemed the Russian "full" in the Horde, took it to their lands and settled entire settlements with former prisoners - "Horde". So the population in the Moscow volosts multiplied, and at the same time the strength of the Moscow princes increased.

The Russian clergy also showed special sympathy and assistance to the Moscow princes. Metropolitan Peter supported Prince Ioann Kalita in his struggle with Tver, lived with him for a long time in Moscow and founded the famous Assumption Cathedral there. The successor of Saint Peter, Metropolitan Theognost, a Greek by birth, finally established his residence there. Under John Daniilovich, Moscow became the church capital of the entire Russian land, the permanent seat of the Russian metropolitans. It is difficult to overestimate the political significance of the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow. Moscow thus received undeniable advantages over all other cities, and the Moscow diocese rose immeasurably above all others. Moscow was connected with Constantinople, and through it with the South Slavic lands. At the same time, a center of political and ecclesiastical power was formed in Moscow, and before that the small town became the center of "All Russia". And later, when the Moscow princes led Russia in the struggle against the Horde and Lithuania, Moscow became the nucleus of the national unification, and the Moscow princes became national sovereigns. It was during the Moscow period that Russia made a colossal path of all-round development, preserving at the foundation of its statehood "the organic system embodied in law" and the spirit of people's life.

SAINT THEOGNOST

Relations with the Horde were the subject of the labors and cares of Metropolitan Theognost, the successor of St. Peter (1328-1353). He went to the Horde twice: for the first time five years after his accession to the metropolitan see (in 1333) - perhaps in order to receive a label from Khan Uzbek for the metropolitanate. Another time in 1342 on the occasion of the accession of a new khan, Uzbekov's son Janibek. On his last trip to the Horde, Metropolitan Filaret found himself in an extremely unpleasant situation. Some persons, most likely appanage princes (primarily Tver princes), dissatisfied with the alliance of the metropolitan with Moscow, reported to the khan that the metropolitan possessed huge funds. Janibek began to demand from the saint that he pay tribute annually for himself and for all the clergy. Such a claim of Khan Janibek was unprecedented in the history of the Horde. Metropolitan Theognost rejected this demand. Then the khan handed him over to the Tatars, who for a long time urged him to do that, tormented the saint and subjected him to various tortures. But the Metropolitan transferred everything and, distributing rich gifts (up to six hundred rubles) to the Tatar nobles, returned to his fatherland with two new labels from Khan Janibek and from his wife Taidula, which confirmed all the previous benefits of the Russian Church and the clergy. The Novgorod Chronicle under the year 1343/1344 says: “Metropolitan Fegnast Grichin go to the Horde to the tsar to the nasty one to Zhenbek, and Kalantai obadish him to the tsarev, robbing him, and tormenting him himself, and rush:" give tribute to the flight "; he is not in that, and put the promise of 6 hundred rubles and you will come to Russia healthy. " For this act of Metropolitan Theognost for the good of the Church, he was especially glorified by his pious compatriots.

HOLY ALEXIUS

The incident between Khan Janibek and Saint Theognost was probably the only black spot in their relationship. On the whole, Janibek took the same supportive attitude towards the Russian Church, as did his father Uzbek. The Nikon Chronicle says: "Behold, this Tsar Chanibek Azbyakovich is very good to Christianity, create a lot of privilege for the Russian land." During his reign, thanks to St. Alexis of Moscow, the influence of the church in Sarai was even more consolidated.

Saint Alexis (1354-1377) did not escape the fate of traveling to the Horde. He made his first trip in 1354, not yet being officially appointed to the Metropolitanate by the Patriarch of Constantinople. He received a label in his name - a travel certificate for travel through the Golden Horde to Constantinople. The diploma guaranteed his personal safety and ordered the khan's officials not to detain him and to provide him with rest all the way. In this label, Saint Alexis was already named Metropolitan.

The next trip was made by him in 1357, no longer of his own free will, but at the invitation of Khan Janibek himself. The khan's wife, Taidula, was extremely ill for three years and lost her sight. No healers and no medicines helped her. Meanwhile, rumors about the holy life of the Russian Primate and the power of his prayer reached the Tatar uluses. Dzhanibek wrote to Prince Ivan Ioannovich of Moscow, asking him to send the bishop of God to the Horde, and at the same time asked Alexy himself to visit the ailing queen. The request was accompanied by threats: for failure to comply, the khan threatened with war. It was impossible to refuse, and the saint went to the Horde, not knowing what awaited him. If Tidula had not recovered, he could really face death. The Metropolitan sacrificed himself in order to avert the threat of a new Tatar invasion of Russia.

This trip was reported in the Moscow Chronicle of the late 15th century: “At the same time, an ambassador from Queen Taidula from the Horde came to Metropolitan Alexei, inviting him to the Horde, yes, when he came, he would visit her ill health. He also started on the path of need to prepare, and then the light would light up by itself at the tomb of the miracle worker Peter August 18. The Metropolitan, however, chanted a prayer service with the entire kliros, and I will light that fragmentation and distribute to the people for blessing. And the same days I went to the Horde and, having come tamo, heal the sick queen. And the packs were soon released with great honor. And in the Horde then the hiding was great. " After the khansha was healed, Saint Alexy gained even greater authority in the Horde. Taydula, on the other hand, was a woman of great intelligence and, experiencing deep gratitude to the Metropolitan, disposed the khan in his favor.

Saint Alexy returned to Moscow with honor, in gratitude for the healing of Taydula he was presented with a Tatar court in the Moscow Kremlin. There were similar courtyards in every large city of Rus and were the centers of the Tatars' administrative control over the Russian principalities. On the site of the court in 1365 in memory of the miracle of healing that happened on September 6, the saint laid a stone church in the name of the miracle of the Archangel Michael in Khonekh and founded the Miracle Monastery under him, in which he was subsequently buried, according to his will. The label issued in November 1357 by Taydula to St. Alexis, traditional in content, has survived. According to him, the Russian Church, praying for the khans, was freed from all tributes, extortions and violence from the secular authorities.

According to the life, Metropolitan Alexy conducted a debate about faith in the Horde in the presence of the khan. Saint Alexis did everything possible to promote the unification of Rus around Moscow, received the greatest number of legal and economic privileges from the Golden Horde khans and enjoyed the greatest respect from them.

During the Metropolitan's stay in the Horde, the Great Troubles (in Russian - Great Zamyatnya) began here, caused by the illness of Khan Janibek and his assassination in 1357. Saint Alexei found himself in an alarming situation.

THE GREAT MEMORY

The crisis in the development of the Golden Horde that began in the second half of the 14th century caused a protracted struggle between the rival factions of its ruling elite. The turmoil began as a family strife, a conflict between the three sons of Janibek - Berdibek, Kulpa and Navrus. Berdibek sat on the throne, killing his father Janibek. He threatened that he would go on a campaign against Russia, for he was not content with the tribute she paid at that time to the Horde. But the patricide was tamed by Saint Alexy, who had come to the Horde. Although he received "a lot of spona" from Khan Berdibek, he still humbled his anger with his wisdom. With the assistance of Taidula, the saint persuaded Berdibek to abandon his intention to march on Russia and received a label from him in confirmation of the previous privileges of the Russian Church.

But in 1359, a new palace coup took place in the Golden Horde, led by Kulpa: Berdibek was killed and Kulpa was proclaimed khan. It should be noted that two sons of Kulpa bore Christian names - Mikhail and Ivan. This suggests that they were both Christians. However, in 1360, Janibek's youngest son Navrus organized another palace coup, in which Kulpa and his sons were killed.

Taking advantage of the next khan's need for Russian silver, Metropolitan Alexei was able, in exchange for financial support, to receive a khan's charter certifying that the great reign was the hereditary right of the Moscow princes from the dynasty of John Kalita. Thus, the political tradition of Kievan Rus was finally canceled.

In 1361, several noble nobles secretly invited one of the Genghisites, a descendant of Shiban named Khuzr, to accept the throne. With the implementation of the new palace intrigue, Navrus and his entire family were also executed. Among the princes and princesses killed then was the "Great Khatun" Taydula.

But among the warring khans, no one had the ability to reunite the separate uluses into a powerful state. The Kipchak Horde did not emerge from the state of troubles and was increasingly fragmented into separate uluses. While the Horde was temporarily paralyzed by internal strife, two new centers of Mongol-Turkic power were formed in Central Asia. The White Horde (Ak-Orda) separated from the Golden Horde, where in 1361 the most powerful of the descendants of the Horde-Ichen came to power - Urus-khan, who refused to recognize himself as a vassal of the Sarai khans. Moreover, the aggression towards Sarai became the leitmotif of his rule. In southern Kazakhstan, in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya in the city of Sygnak (Sugnak), Urus Khan established the capital of Ak-Orda. More and more Juchid princes and Mongol temniks recognized him as their ruler. "Urus" in Turkic means "Russian". In all likelihood, Urus Khan had Russian roots on the maternal side.

Also refused to recognize its dependence on Sarai and another part of the Golden Horde - the Blue Horde (Kok-Horde), where Khan Pulad (1350-1370) ruled, who established his court in Samarkand, in Maverannahr.

In the west of the Golden Horde, on the right bank of the Volga, the temnik Mamai came to power and also became an independent sovereign. On the remaining territory of the Golden Horde, separate uluses soon began to emerge.

In Maverannahr, during the prolonged period of local conflicts, the personality of Timur (Tamerlane) stood out. However, he was not Chinggisid and had no right to the throne. Even becoming omnipotent, he was forced to rule on behalf of the puppet khans of the house of Genghis.

Having seized Samarkand, Tamerlane decided, first of all, to establish his control over Ak-Orda. This meant a possible clash with Urus Khan. At that moment, Urus began a march to the west and in about 1372 his army reached the lower reaches of the Volga, and the next year captured both Sarai. After joining the New Sarai, Urus-khan declared himself the khan of the Golden Horde.

However, at this time, one of the most capable commanders of Urus Khan, Tokhtamysh, the son of Emir Mangyshlak, who was killed by Urus Khan, fled from him to Tamerlane, seeking protection and support. Tamerlane received Tokhtamysh with appropriate honors and recognized him as the ruler of Sygnak.

In 1377, Urus-khan died, and his younger son Timur-Melik succeeded him. Tamerlane gave Tokhtamysh the opportunity to try his luck in a campaign against the new ruler of Ak-Orda, Khan Timur-Melik. In the end, Tokhtamysh emerged victorious and captured Sygnak in the same year. But Tokhtamysh's ambitious plans were not limited to this - he also wanted to become the khan of the Golden Horde and, thus, establish his rule over the entire Jochi ulus.

The Russian chronicles of that time speak of many murders and coups: “That same summer there was a noticeable speed in the Horde, and many princes of Ordinsk were beaten up between them, and the Tatars fell innumerable; so, the wrath of God will come against them because of their iniquity. " In total, during the 20 years of turmoil in the Golden Horde, 21 khans were replaced.

In the initial period of the Great Troubles, the Russian princes continued to act in accordance with the previously established order and asked each new khan for confirmation of their labels. During rapid changes on the Golden Horde throne, it sometimes happened that the ruling khan did not have time to issue new labels, and the princes had to wait in the Horde for the next khan to do this.

As a result of the "hush-up", the authority of the khans was sharply shaken, while the consolidation of the spirit of the Russian people began to acquire real shape. In 1374, the grandson of Ioann Kalita, the Grand Duke of Moscow Dimitri Ioannovich, stopped paying tribute to the Horde, and then, overcoming the contradictions between the Russian princes, he managed to rally them for a joint struggle.

The last label received by the Russian metropolitan is dated 1379. He was given to the named Metropolitan Michael (Mityai) during the reign of Mamai by the puppet khan Atyulyak (Tulunbek) "by Mamay's uncle's thought." The famous Battle of Kulikovo soon followed, and relations between Russia and the Horde entered a different phase. The power of the Mongol-Tatars in Russia was rapidly weakening, and the confirmation by the khans of their favor to the Russian Church lost all meaning. In addition, the old Mongol traditions of religious tolerance gradually disappeared, replaced by fanatical Islamism.

MAMAI

The incipient disintegration of the Golden Horde was stopped by a friend of the Genoese and Lithuanians who came to power, the military leader Mamai.

Mamai, like Tamerlane, was not a Chinggisid, as a result of which he did not have the right to the throne and for a long time ruled in the Horde on behalf of the dummy khans, the descendants of Jochi, whom he placed in the Golden Horde at his discretion. According to his religious views, Mamai belonged to the order of the "Ismailis" who were in contact with the Western European knightly order of the Templars. The basis of the teachings of the "Ismailis" was the doctrine of the "God-man" ("imam"). The order had 9 stages of initiation, ascending through which the initiate learned that “although the founder of Islam, Muhammad, is higher than Moses and Christ, he is lower than the Imam-God-man”, that “all religions are the same, and their prescriptions are obligatory only for commoners, and not for those who has comprehended the highest mystical meaning ”.

At that time, the largest colonial states were Genoa and Venice. Almost all world trade was in their hands. The importance of these states especially increased in connection with the Crusades, which paved the way for Genoese and Venetian merchants to the countries of the Middle East and the Black Sea region. In the XIII century, after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the defeat of the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians, and after them the Genoese, penetrated the Black Sea coast. In the XIV century, with the help of their colonies, the Genoese controlled the basin of the Black and Azov Seas, closely followed the countries through which the main trade routes to these seas passed, and actively intervened in their internal affairs. There is reason to believe that Mamai was a henchman of the Genoese, who were not accidentally among the inspirers and direct organizers of Mamai's campaign to Moscow.

With the help of Mamai, they established complete control over the Golden Horde, through which half of the total length of the Great Silk Road passed. The Genoese then tried to do the same with the Moscow principality located to the north of their Black Sea possessions, which by that time had become the center of the unification of Russian lands.

In this regard, the relationship between Genoa, the Moscow principality and the Golden Horde in the period 1370-1381 is very characteristic. Moscow adhered to the traditional policy of alliance with the heirs of the khans of Ak-Orda - primarily with Tokhtamysh, pursued since the time of Batu. Mamai, as we see, relied on an alliance with the West, mainly with the Genoese colonies in the Crimea. This difference turned out to be decisive in the further course of events.

In the early 70s of the XIV century, an agent of the Genoese in Moscow, the richest merchant, a Greek by nationality Nekomat Sourozhanin, organized a conspiracy to overthrow the Moscow prince Dimitri Ioannovich. This conspiracy through a military coup was to be carried out by the head of the Moscow city militia (tysyatsky) Velyaminov. But in 1375 the conspiracy was revealed and Velyaminov was executed. Unable to establish control over the Moscow principality with the help of an internal coup, as they did with the Golden Horde, the Genoese decided to subjugate Moscow with the help of external military pressure through Mamai. But Mamai did not just intend to subjugate Russia in order to collect tribute, as it was in the days of the former Golden Horde khans. He intended to directly settle with his entourage in the best Russian cities - to expel the Russian princes and take their place - which the Golden Horde rulers never encroached on. The author of The Legend of the Mamay Massacre also speaks about this: “Mamai ... began to speak to her upat and the prince and the ulan:“ I don’t want to create like Baty; how I’m worn out by princes and which red breeds weigh on us, and that we will sit down , we will live quietly and serenely ... "And many Hordes, having added to themselves the army of ponaimov ... And go to Russia ... and the commandment with your ulus:" Do not plow a single one of you, so you will be ready for Russian bread .. . "". Likewise, in the Word about the life of Dimitri Ioannovich Donskoy, it is noted about Mamai that he, going to Russia in war, said: "I will take the Russian land, and I will destroy the Christian churches, and I will impose them on my faith, and I will command them to worship my Mohammed."

This goal was set, presumably, by the Genoese, for the khans of the Golden Horde never had such intentions. Therefore, the Mamaeva Horde was a fundamentally different, special phenomenon than the Golden Horde, and set different goals for itself.

At the same time, the Moscow principality was strengthened, which concluded the long-awaited peace with Tver in 1375. In this world, Prince Mikhail of Tverskoy for himself and for his entire family renounced the great reign of Vladimir and recognized himself as the "younger brother" of Demetrius of Moscow. Michael refused an alliance with the Lithuanian prince, and undertook to fight with Lithuania, if the Moscow prince demanded it. According to one of the articles of the treaty, Mikhail undertook to follow Moscow's policy towards the Horde in everything: “Whether we will be at peace with the Tatars, it depends on us; whether we give a way out - it depends on us; we do not want to give - it also depends on us. If the Tatars go to us or you, then we will fight together, if we go to them, then you will go with us together. "

In 1377-1378, the Golden Horde army undertook a number of large-scale campaigns against Moscow Russia. However, it was not possible to overthrow Prince Dimitri Ioannovich or force him to submit to Mamai. And then the Golden Horde begins preparations for a big war against Moscow with the aim of completely crushing it and including its territory into the Golden Orda state. To implement this plan, the Genoese allocated huge money, for which Mamai by the summer of 1380 was able to hire a giant army at that time - 120 thousand people. In addition, Mamai came into contact with Lithuania, which, as you know, was then hostile to Moscow. The Lithuanian prince Yagailo promised Mamai to unite with him on September 1, 1380.

The Genoese, helping Mamai, in return, among other things, demanded from him a concession for the production of furs and trade in the north of Russia, in the region of Veliky Ustyug. Mamai tried to negotiate with Prince Dimitri of Moscow that for the granting of concessions he would give the young Prince Dimitri a shortcut to the great reign. If the prince had agreed to this deal, Muscovy Rus in a very short time would have turned into a trading colony of the Genoese. And although the offer seemed beneficial to many in Moscow, the Church had its say then. The Monk Sergius of Radonezh declared that there could be nothing to do with the Latins: foreign merchants should not be allowed into the Holy Russian Land, for this is a sin.

All these circumstances explain why Russia only once in almost two and a half centuries of the "Mongol era" entered a wide field for mortal combat. Russia rose to defend Orthodoxy, but not its political or land interests, and won.

As for Northern Russia, she fearfully awaited Mamaev's invasion. Tver and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes lurked, waiting for the development of events. Veliky Novgorod was also in no hurry with its help. The Ryazan prince, showing cowardice, "changed", entering into a submissive agreement with the enemy. One Moscow prince, having gathered his forces, decided to repulse Mamai, and, moreover, not at his own line, but in a wild field, where he overshadowed not only the Moscow principality, but all of Russia.

As you know, Mamai's campaign against Russia was unsuccessful. In the battle on the Kulikovo field, about 350 km from Moscow on September 8 (21), 1380, on the day of the Nativity of the Most Holy Theotokos, Mamai's army suffered a crushing defeat and was mostly destroyed.

After his defeat, Mamai paid off the Genoese for the money spent on his campaign with a part of the territory of the Golden Horde, transferring them under a treaty the southern coast of Crimea from Balaklava to Sudak. After that, he received a new loan from the Genoese to organize the next campaign against Russia.

However, in the midst of preparations for this campaign, Khan of the White Horde Tokhtamysh attacked Mamai. Mamai was defeated and fled to the Crimea, to the capital of the Genoese possessions, Kafu (Feodosia), hoping to find refuge with his masters. But without an army, without a state, they did not need him, and therefore he was soon robbed and killed.

Speaking about the Battle of Kulikovo, one cannot but say that initially the Monk Sergius of Radonezh refused to bless the Grand Duke for the war with Mamai. In one of the manuscripts of the life of the greatest Russian saint, his direct objection to Dimitri Ioannovich is given: "... Your duty is darzhit (withholds), you must submit to the Horde king." Probably, these words were uttered for some considerable time before the Battle of Kulikovo, when the Holy Trinity Monastery had not yet understood what Mamai really was, and they saw in him the traditional khan of the Golden Horde.

On the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, the Monk Sergius said something quite different: “It befits you, sir, when you cite about the herd of Christ handed over from God. Go against the ungodly, and help God, conquer. " The Monk Sergius was supported by Metropolitan Alexei. Moscow rejected the proposal of the Genoese and thus remained loyal to the alliance with the legitimate heir of the khans of the Golden Horde - Tokhtamysh. Thus, two coalitions took part in this war: the alliance of the chimeric state of Mamai, Genoa and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, that is, the West, and the bloc of Moscow with the White Horde (Ak-Orda), which was initiated by Saint Alexander Nevsky.

After the victory at the Kulikovo field, the sovereigns of Moscow no longer had rivals in Russia. It is no coincidence that the Kazan chronicler, recording the events that happened after 1380, gave them the following name: “On the final desolation of the Golden Horde; and about her king, and about freedom, and about the majesty of the Russian land, and honor, and about the beauty of the glorious city of Moscow. " From that time on, Dimitri turned from Prince of Moscow into “Tsar of Russia,” as his literary works of that time began to call him, and his principality grew into a new strong Moscow state, unlike Kievan Rus. The Russian people at this moment historically felt themselves matured, spiritually grew into a great nation. If Muscovites, residents of Vladimir, Tver and Pskov came to the Kulikovo field, then they all returned from the Kulikovo field as Russians.

Polovtsev and created a strong military organization. He made a number of trips to the Kiev and Pereyaslavl lands. In 1185 he defeated Prince Igor Svyatoslavich and captured him. Description of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich and other Russian princes against Konchak formed the basis of "The Lay of Igor's Regiment."

Ruban V. G., "A curious Moscow month for 1776". Moscow.

The largest cities of the Golden Horde on the territory of modern South Kazakhstan were: Sygnak (located on the right bank of the Syr Darya near the city of Yanykurgan, Kyzyl-Orda oblast); Yassy (in the 16th century the city was named Turkestan and played a prominent role in the history of the Kazakh khanates); Sauran (located 30 km north-west of the city of Turkestan); Otrar (located 15 km west of the Timur railway station in South Kazakhstan); Dzhend (located on the right bank of the Zhany-Darya, 115 km west of Kyzyl-Orda), as well as other cities located in the territory of Northern and Western Kazakhstan.

Ibn Battuta Abu Abdallah Mohammed ibn Abdallah al-Lawati at-Tanji (24.2.1304, Tangier, —1377, Fez), Arab traveler, itinerant merchant. He left notes about his stay in the Golden Horde at the court of Khan Uzbek, replete with information of an economic, ethnographic and cultural and everyday character.

This is evidenced, in particular, by the Vodyanskoe settlement, where a site inhabited by Russians was excavated. The settlement was located on the right bank of the Volga, 2 km north of Dubovka, Volgograd region.

VL Egorov compares Bezdezh (Beldzhamen) with the Vodyansk settlement.

Gediminas - the Grand Duke of Lithuania since 1316, subdued all the Russian principalities from Polotsk to Kiev and prepared the annexation of Volhynia. Gedimin hindered the unification policy of the Moscow principality, trying to tear Pskov and Novgorod away from Russia. In this struggle, Gediminas relied on an alliance with Tver, sealed by the marriage of Gediminas' daughter Maria with Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich (1320). Gediminas was the first to call himself “the king of Lithuanians and Russians”. [SMIZO, vol. 1, p. 306.] At the same time, Gediminas did not prevent the settlers from living according to their customs, allowed Lithuanians to be baptized, and even some of his sons converted to Orthodoxy and married Russian princesses; but he himself died a pagan.

Grand Duke John I Danilovich Kalita, died on March 31, 1340, having accepted the schema with the name Ananias. In 2001, by the decision of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II, he was canonized among the locally revered saints of the city of Moscow.

"Labels of the Tatar khans to the Moscow metropolitans." Brief meeting, p. 470.

In the Moscow Kremlin, at the place where in the late 50s of the XIV century, Metropolitan Alexy founded the Miracle Monastery, not far from the main - Frolovsky (from the middle of the 17th century - Spassky) - gates was the residence of the Tatars "Tsarev Posolsky Dvor" and " Khan's stable place ". Horde envoys came here; Khan's Baskaks lived here, who, in addition to their main activity, were engaged in closely following the events taking place in Moscow. Tatar merchants, apparently, also stayed here. Under John III, the Tatar house, or the Horde courtyard, was still located here.

The monastery was destroyed in the 1930s, the relics of St. Alexis were subsequently transferred to the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Epiphany in Yelokhovo.

Despite Islam, in the Golden Horde, a woman enjoyed equality and great honor. This is due to the remnants of Mongol law - Yassy, \u200b\u200bwhich, along with Sharia, continued to operate in the Golden Horde in the XIV century. Al-Omari wrote: "The inhabitants of this state do not follow the instructions of the caliphs like those (Iraqis) and their wives participate with them in government ...". Ibn Battuta wrote about the same. Women, he said, do not hide their faces. In the Horde letters it was written: “The opinions of the khatuns and the emirs agreed on this.” In addition to the issuance of labels by the khanshes, it is known that coins were minted on behalf of the khansha Tulunbek-khanum.

Sygnak is a medieval city, now ruins in the Sunak-Ata tract, 18 km to the North-East from the Tyumen-Aryk station in Kazakhstan.

The area between the Amu Darya and Syrdarya rivers, including the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khojent.

"Temnik" is the head of the 10-thousandth military unit.

"Monuments of Russian law", Issue 3, M. 1955, p. 465.

CM. Soloviev "Readings and stories on the history of Russia" - M., "Pravda", 1990, p. 229, 241.

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